Ioan. Loccenius De iure maritimo
Creator: Johannes Loccenius | Date: 1651 | Notes: Loccenius maps shipwreck, freight, prize, seafaring labor, and jurisdiction into a compact legal framework for the maritime world of Baltic commercial power.
- Title
- Ioan. Loccenius De iure maritimo
- Creator
- Johannes Loccenius
- Date
- 1651
- Notes
- Loccenius maps shipwreck, freight, prize, seafaring labor, and jurisdiction into a compact legal framework for the maritime world of Baltic commercial power.
Document notes
Loccenius maps shipwreck, freight, prize, seafaring labor, and jurisdiction into a compact legal framework for the maritime world of Baltic commercial power.
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Ioan. LOCCENTVS de Iure MARITIMO HOLMIAE Ex officina Ianssoniana. Anno 1651. BIBLIOTEA NAZI ROMA VITTORIO EMANUELI
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Ioan. LOCCENTVS de Iure MARITIMO HOLMIAE From the Janssonian press. Year 1651. BIBLIOTEA NAZI ROME VITTORIO EMANUELI
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BIBLIOTECA NAZ. ROMA VITTORIO EMANUELE. JOHANNIS LOCCENII J.C. De IURE MARITIMO & Navali LIBRI TRES. HOLMIAE. Ex Officinâ JOANNIS JANSSONII, Anno cl[.]Io cl.
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National Library Rome Vittorio Emanuele. Johannis Loceenii, J.C. On Maritime & Naval Law Three Books. Stockholm. From the workshop of Joannes Janssonius, Year cl[.]Io cl.
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P R AEFATIO Ad LECTOREM. I Vs maritimum & navale hujusmodi esse constat, ut ex legitimo ejus usu non exigua pars externæ felicitatis Rerumpub. pendeat. Quid enim magis fortunas & opes rerumpub. auget firmatque, quam frequens, justum tamen, navigationis & commerciorum exercitium? Vetus equidem Iurisconsultus ad summam rempub. pertin re dixit. Inde factum est, ut singularia quædam jura de eo passim condita sint; quæ delectu utilium habito, in ordinem & succinctum opus contrahi, & nostris temporibus ac usui accommodari, è re juventutis & publicâ fore mihi persuadebam. quo animo hos libellos ex meis excerptis per otium concinnavi. Quia verò hoc argumentum ita comparatum est, ut in eo non pauca ex jure publico & gentium explicari necesse sit, non solum Leges nauticas Romanas, in quas post recensitum Peckii Commentarium A 3 lucu-
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P R E F A C E To THE READER. It is well known that maritime and naval law is of such a kind that, from its lawful use, no small part of the external prosperity of the commonwealth depends. For what more than frequent, though lawful, practice of navigation and commerce increases and strengthens the fortunes and wealth of the commonwealth? Indeed, an ancient jurist said that it pertains to the highest interests of the state. Hence it came about that certain special laws concerning it have been laid down everywhere; and, after a selection of the useful had been made, I persuaded myself that it would be beneficial for the young and for the public for them to be brought together into an orderly and concise work, and adapted to our times and to practical use. With this intention I have, in my leisure, compiled these little books from my own excerpts. But because this subject is so constituted that in it it is necessary to explain not a few matters from public law and the law of nations, not only the Roman nautical laws, into which after reviewing Peckius's Commentary A 3 lucu-
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P R A E F A T I O. luculentas edidit Notas clarissimus An- tecessor Academiæ Leidensis Arnoldus Vinnius; sed etiam Ius Nauticum Sueri- cum, & Statuta moresque aliorum popu- lorum tam veteres quam hodiernos, quot- quot haberi potuerunt de hac materia, in partes advocavi. inprimis tamen vicinarum & conjunctarum geniiu[m] leges & instituta nautica consului, quæ cum nostris negocia- tionum maritimarum tractatione & con- suetudine propius conveniunt. Ita Leges ma- ritimas Wisbyenses, quoties oportunitas allicuit & res ipsa jussit, ad testimonium vocavi. quæ Leges eandem ferme authori- tatem hodie obtinent, quam olim Leges Rhodiæ. Certè apud Transrhenanos popu- los, Respub. Hanseaticas, & in Regnis Bo- realibus communi usu receptæ & quasi jure civitatis donatæ sunt. Statuta insuper ma- ritima Hanseaticarum civitatum & Rei- pub. Belgicæ, quæ navigandi & commer- candi arte præ cæteris florent, ubi sic mate- ries exposcebat, adhibuit. quæ tamen cum per se non obligent alios, quam quibus scripta sunt, ea cautione admittenda esse ab aliis non
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P R A E F A T I O. The most illustrious Preceptor of the University of Leiden, Arnoldus Vinnius, has published clear Notes; but I have also called into aid the Maritime Law of Sweden, and the statutes and customs of other peoples, both ancient and modern, as many as could be obtained on this subject. Above all, however, I consulted the laws and maritime institutions of neighboring and related peoples, which more closely accord with our own practice and usage in maritime trade. Thus I have cited the Maritime Laws of Wisby whenever opportunity invited and the matter itself required it. These Laws today possess nearly the same authority as the Laws of Rhodes once did. Certainly among the peoples beyond the Rhine, in the Hanseatic Republics, and in the Northern Kingdoms, they have been received into common use and, as it were, granted the rights of citizenship. Moreover, I have employed the maritime statutes of the Hanseatic cities and of the Belgian Republic, which excel above the rest in the art of navigation and commerce, wherever the subject matter so demanded. Yet since these do not in themselves bind anyone except those for whom they were written, they are to be admitted by others with this caution not
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P R A E F A T I O. non semel protestatus sum, quatenus æquitati jurique gentium amicè congruunt, aut lege scripta vel contraria consuetudine non abrogata sunt. qua conditione etiam Romani Imperatores legem Rhodiam Nauticam olim in suam Remp. receperunt. Imitari hîc apes placuit, quæ cujuscunque generis flores ita libant, ut optimum inde succum hauriant. De quibus verò nihil expressum in Iure scripto exstat (nec omnia possunt Legibus includi, quum Ius finitum, negotia infinita sint) ea aut ipsorum Iudicum, aut illorum qui ad medium Ianum sedent, ut Poeta loquitur, vel mercatorum rei maritimæ peritorum prudentiæ permittenda erunt. DEVS faxit, ut noster labor ejus honori & publico bono serviat. A 4 IN-
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Preface. I have more than once declared that, insofar as they agree amicably with equity and the law of nations, or have not been abrogated by written law or contrary custom. Under that condition even the Roman Emperors once received the Rhodian Naval Law into their commonwealth. It seemed proper here to imitate the bees, which from flowers of whatever kind so sip, that they draw from them the best juice. Those matters, however, about which nothing express exists in written law (for not everything can be included in laws, since law is finite and affairs infinite), must be left either to the judges themselves, or to those who, as the poet says, sit at the middle Janus, or to the prudence of merchants experienced in maritime affairs. God grant that our labor may serve His honor and the public good. A 4 IN-
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INDEX CAPITUM. LIB. I. CAPUT I. De Origine & causis Navigationis. II. De fabricatione & instructione Navium. III. De jure Navigandi. IV. De Imperio Maris. V. De Angariis vel præstationibus Navium. VI. De jure Fluminum, littorum & riparum. VII. De Naufragio. VIII. De jure Portus, portorii & vectigalis. IX. De jure Piscandi. X. De jure Stapulæ. LIB. II. CAPUT I. De Navigationis securitate. II.
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INDEX OF CHAPTERS. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. On the Origin & Causes of Navigation. II. On the Construction & Equipment of Ships. III. On the Right of Navigating. IV. On Dominion of the Sea. V. On Carriages or Services of Ships. VI. On the Right of Rivers, shores & banks. VII. On Shipwreck. VIII. On the Right of Port, dues & toll. IX. On the Right of Fishing. X. On the Right of Staple. BOOK II. CHAPTER I. On the Security of Navigation. II.
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INDEX CAPITUM. II. De Societate navali bellica, vel Admiralitate, ut aliàs vocant. III. De Piratis. IV. De jure Postliminii navium. V. De Aversione periculi, vulgò Adsecuratione. VI. De Fænorenautico. VII. De Jactu. VIII. De Contributione. LIB. III. CAPUT. I. De donationemortis causa, Testamento & Legato nautico. II. De Contractibus nauticis, qui refiunt. III. De Pignorenavis, & rerum in navi. IV. De Repressaliis, ut vocant, & Arrestationibus navium. A 5 V.
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INDEX OF CHAPTERS. II. On the naval war association, or Admiralty, as it is otherwise called. III. On Pirates. IV. On the law of postliminium of ships. V. On the transfer of risk, commonly called Insurance. VI. On Foeneronautics. VII. On Jettison. VIII. On Contribution. BOOK III. CHAPTER I. On donation mortis causa, Testament & nautical Legacy. II. On nautical Contracts, which are made. III. On the Pledge of a ship, & things in a ship. IV. On Reprisals, as they are called, & Arrestations of ships. A 5 V.
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INDEX CAPITUM. V. De Contractibus nauticis, qui consensu fiunt. VI. De Societate navi pa- cata. VII. De Exercitoria Actione. VIII. De delictis in navi. IX. Num magister aut præfe- ctus navis bona cum consci- entia possit, igne in pulve- rem tormentarium injecto, navem unà cum seipso & suis & simul hostibus navem occupantibus perdere po- tius, quam salvam navem, se & suos hostium arbitrio permittere? X. De Foro & processu juris navigantium. Cum
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INDEX OF CHAPTERS. V. On maritime contracts, which are made by agreement. VI. On partnership in a ship pa- cata. VII. On the Exercise Action. VIII. On offenses in a ship. IX. Whether the master or prefect of a ship may, with knowledge, after fire has been thrown into the gunpowder, prefer to destroy the ship together with himself & his own people and also the enemies occupying the ship, rather than, with the ship safe, to leave himself and his own people to the enemy’s discretion? X. On the forum & process of law of sailors. Cum
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II Cum DEO. JOHANNIS LOCCENII DE JURE MARITIMO ET NAVALI LIBER PRIMVS CAPUT I. De Origine & caussis navigationis. I. Scopus et ordo operis. II. Rudimenta navigationis in recens condito mundo. III. Aucto genere humano incrementa ejus ex occasione commerciorum. IV. Ex adquirendi cupiditate et quæstu. V. Ex patriæ tutela maritima, aliisque causis. I. QVum materia de Iure maritimo & navali cuivis reipub. quæ negociationes transmarinas exercet, vel in mari classem habet, scitu necessaria usuque quotidiana sit, operæ esse existimavi, quæ sparsim in Codicibus Legum aliisque de hoc argumento scriptis, quotquot vide- re contigit, exstant, atque plurium gentium consensu observantur, in ordinem cogere, explicare atque in usum publicum prome- ex. A 6
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II With God. JOHANNIS LOCCENIUS ON MARITIME AND NAVAL LAW BOOK I CHAPTER I. On the Origin and causes of navigation. I. Scope and order of the work. II. The beginnings of navigation in the newly created world. III. Its growth with the increase of the human race through the occasion of commerce. IV. From the desire of acquiring and gain. V. From the maritime defense of the fatherland, and other causes. I. Since the subject of maritime and naval law, for any commonwealth that carries on overseas trade or has a fleet at sea, is necessary to know and of daily use, I thought it worthwhile to gather into order, explain, and bring into public use those things which are scattered in the Codes of Laws and in other writings on this subject, as many as have come to my attention, and which are observed by the agreement of many nations, ex.
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12 Ioh. Loccenii re. Quod ut commodè fiat, primum ut fabrica tæ & instructæ classi mare velut aperiri & jure navigari, deinde tutum præstari, & tandem ejus beneficio solennes modi rei adquirendæ, & maritimi nauticique contractus celebrari possint, explanabo cum aliis quæ illis connexa sunt. II. In primævo mundi statu jam in usu esse cæpisse navigia, non est quod dubitemus. Id satis colligere est ex illis Genes. cap. 1. v. 28. verbis: Dominamini in pisces maris. Illud enim dominium & piscationis privilegium humano generi Divinitus concessum absque ratibus, cymbis & lembis haud potuisse commodè usurpari consentaneum est. Nisi quod ut omnium artium incunabula quædam sunt & progressus, prima ætas rudimenta quædam navigiorum, & uti verisimile fit, schedias quædam usurpavit, vel nudas arbores, ramis amputatis. quibus veluti navigiis Vsoum primum ausum mare ingredi, tradit Sanchuniathon apud Eusebium præpar. Euangel. 1, 10. Hunc Vsoum fuisse Esarum, ex vocis cognatione, & ejus habitatione, quod esset accola rubri maris, eruditi colligunt. Postea arbores cavatas, denique ex tabulis & trabibus connexis navigia antiquitas excogitavit & fabricavit. Lucretius circa fi- nem lib. V. Na-
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12 Ioh. Loccenii re. In order that this may be done conveniently, I shall first explain that the sea may, as it were, be opened up to a well-built and equipped fleet and be navigated by right, then be made safe, and finally that by its benefit the customary means of acquiring property, and maritime and nautical contracts, may be concluded, together with other matters connected with them. II. That ships began to be in use already in the earliest state of the world, there is no reason for us to doubt. This may be sufficiently gathered from those words of Genesis, chapter 1, verse 28: “Have dominion over the fishes of the sea.” For that dominion and privilege of fishing, granted by God to the human race, could not conveniently have been exercised without rafts, boats, and skiffs. Except that, just as all arts have certain cradles and advances, the earliest age employed certain rudiments of ships, and, as is likely, certain makeshifts, or bare trees with the branches cut off; with these, as with ships, Vsoum first dared to enter the sea, as Sanchuniathon reports in Eusebius, Preparatio Evangelica 1, 10. Learned men infer that this Vsoum was Esarus, from the similarity of the name and from his dwelling-place, since he was an inhabitant of the Red Sea. Afterwards they hollowed out trees; finally antiquity devised and fashioned ships from planks and joined timbers. Lucretius near the end of book V. Na-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 13 Navigia atque agri culturas, mænia, leges Vsus & impigræ simul experientia mentis Paulatim docuit pedetentim progredientis. Virgilius 1. Gregor. Vt varias usus meditando extunderet artes Paullatim &c. Tunc alnos primum fluvii sensere cavatas. Ceterum area Noæ singulari artificio, ex ipsius Dei præscripto jussuque, ut scimus, exstructa est. II. Primis tamen temporibus quum domi nata paucis & frugalibus hominibus sufficerent, cunctisque communia essent, non adeò opus erat transmarinis commerciis, & ad exteros navigatione. Tibullus lib. I. el. 3. ubi de aureo seculo agit: Nondum cæruleas pinus contem serat undas, Effusum ventis præbueratque sinum; Nec vagus ignotis repetens compendia terris, Presserat externa navita merceratem. Et Germanicus in Arat. Phænom. Ignotique maris cursus privataque tellus Grata satis, neq[ue] per dubios avidissima vetos Spes procul amotas fabricata nave petebat. Sed postquam crescente humano genere urbes condi & dominia rerum distingui coeperunt, negociationes terra marique, & navigationes institutæ sunt: quarum beneficio quod uni societati, sive ad necessita- tem
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On Maritime Law, Book I. 13 Ships and the cultivation of fields, walls, laws, Use and, together with the untiring activity of the mind, Gradually taught those advancing step by step. Virgil, 1. Gregor. That use, by pondering, might gradually bring forth various arts. Little by little, etc. Then the alders first felt the hollowed rivers. Moreover, Noah’s ark was built with singular craftsmanship, by the command and ordinance of God Himself, as we know. II. Yet in the earliest times, when things produced at home were enough for a few and frugal men, and all things were held in common, there was not so much need of overseas trade and navigation to foreign lands. Tibullus Book I, Elegy 3, where he speaks of the golden age: The pine had not yet despised the blue waves, nor spread its sail, offered to the winds; nor had the wandering sailor, seeking gains in unknown lands, pressed down the merchant from foreign shores. And Germanicus in Aratus, Phaenomena: The course of the unknown sea and land private to themselves were pleasing enough, nor did hope, most eager through doubtful delays, seek far-off things by ship fashioned for the purpose. But after, with the human race increasing, cities began to be founded and the dominion of affairs to be distinguished, business dealings by land and sea, and voyages were instituted: by whose benefit that which to one society, whether for necessity-
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Ioh. Loccenii 14 tem sive delicias deesset, ab altera petere- tur. IV. Mox accessit studium habendi, quod commoda maris & navigationis intende- runt auxeruntque. Iacobi patriarchæ vaticinium de Zebulone filio tale exstat Genes. cap. XLIX. v. 13. Zebulon ad portum marium habitabit, ipse inquam ad portum marium, la- tusque ejus versus Sidonem erit. Hoc Moses in ultima sua benedictione repetit, & cla- rioribus verbis exprimit Deuteronom. cap. XXXIII. v. 19. Zebulon & Isaschar affluen- tiam marium sugent & occulta, thesauros arena. Salomon Proverb. cap. 31. v. 14. foemina laboriosam & adquirendi studiosam navibus negotiatoriis comparat. Author Sa- pientiæ: Navigium cupiditas quæstuum exco- gitavit. cap. 14. v. 2. Homerus Odyss. lib. 17. ventris gratta (γαστέρενενενεν) naves in indomitum mare armari dixit. Hesiodus lib. II. Oper. & dier. ubi navigationis incommo- da describit, hunc etiam versum addit: ἐ Pecunia anima est miseris mortalibus. V. Præter mercaturæ usum naves rei militari, & tutandæ in mari contra externam vim reipub. inservire cæperunt. Ari- stoteles VII. Pol. VI. Mare & classem in bello esse tutelam reipub. ait. Tacitus V. Hi- stor. classes imperii munimenta vocat. Athe- mien-
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Ioh. Loccenii 14 if food or delicacies were lacking, it would be sought from the other. IV. Soon the desire to possess also arose, which the conveniences of the sea and navigation increased and enlarged. The prophecy of the patriarch Jacob concerning the son Zebulon stands thus, Gen. chap. XLIX, v. 13: Zebulon shall dwell by the haven of the seas, that is, by the haven of the seas shall he dwell, and his border shall be toward Sidon. Moses repeats this in his last blessing, and expresses it in clearer words, Deuteronomy chap. XXXIII, v. 19: Zebulon and Issachar shall suck of the abundance of the seas and of the hidden treasures of the sand. Solomon, Proverbs chap. 31, v. 14, compares the industrious woman, zealous in acquiring, with merchant ships. The author of Wisdom: “The desire of gain devised a vessel,” chap. 14, v. 2. Homer, Odys. book 17, said that for the belly’s sake (γαστέρενενενεν) ships are equipped for the untamed sea. Hesiod, book II of Works and Days, where he describes the inconveniences of navigation, adds this verse also: “Money is the soul for wretched mortals.” V. Besides the use of trade, ships began to serve military purposes and to protect the commonwealth at sea against external force. Aristotle, Pol. VII, VI, says that the sea and a fleet are a safeguard for the commonwealth in war. Tacitus, Hist. V, calls fleets the bulwarks of empire. Athe-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 15 niensium Legati apud Thucydidem lib. I. Histor. in Orat. ad Lacedæmonios, fortunas Græciæ in navium præsidio sitas fuisse prædicant. ejus rei muri lignei Themistoclis abunde fidem fecerunt. Idem experientia satis hodie loquitur. Inde Cosmo Medices familiare fuit dictum: Non habendum potentem qui potentiæ terrestri non simul etiam navalem haberet conjunctam. Et Hispanorum est adagium: Regnum sine portu, esse sicut furnum absque igne. Præterquam quod navigationes cultui vitæ & artium, traductioni coloniarum, valetudini & voluptati serviunt; de quibus plura Iohannes Schefferus gener meus in accurato opere de militia navali lib. I.c.1. CAP. II. De fabricatione & instructione Navium. I. Privilegia Principum fabricantibus naves concessa. cur negata Senatoribus & præsidibus provinciarum. II. Credentium pecuniam in navim fabricandam & instruendam prærogativa. III. Pæna docentium barbaros artem extruendi naves quæ tamen hodie non passim in usu est. IV. Qui
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 15 The ambassadors of the Venetians, apud Thucydidem lib. I. Histor. in the Oration to the Lacedaemonians, declare that the fortunes of Greece were placed in the protection of ships; the wooden walls of Themistocles gave abundant proof of this matter. Experience itself speaks sufficiently of it even today. Hence it was a familiar saying of Cosmo de’ Medici: A man should not be held powerful who does not have naval power joined together with land power. And there is the Spanish proverb: A kingdom without a port is like a furnace without fire. Apart from the fact that navigation serves the refinement of life and the arts, the transplantation of colonies, health, and pleasure; on these matters see more in Johannes Schefferus, my son-in-law, in his careful work De militia navali, lib. I. c. 1. CAP. II. On the fabrication and outfitting of Ships. I. Privileges granted by Princes to those fabricating ships, why denied to Senators and governors of provinces. II. The prerogative of those who lend money for the building and outfitting of a ship. III. The penalty for teaching barbarians the art of constructing ships, which nevertheless is not today in general use. IV. Who
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16 Ioh. Loccenii IV. Qui eligendi ad fabricandam navem. & num alii illis substitui possint. ad quid obligentur. V. Navis ex aliena materia facta cujus sit, an facientis, an materiæ domini. VI. Navis corpus est ex compositis, nec admittit propriè divisionem. quod exemplis declaratur. VII. Nave legata vel usufructu ejus, quid ex quantum debeatur, ex occasione disquiritur. VIII. Item in pacto de nave non petenda. IX. Quæ sit instructa navis. X. Num scapha etiam nomine instrumenti contineatur. I. Originem & caussas navigationis proximo loco excipit fabricatio & instructio navium. Non autem hujus loci nostrique instituti est, ostendere quomodo naves ex aptâ materiâ convenienti tempore cæsâ, quomodo justa proportione ac magnitudine sint extruendæ: de quibus ipsi artifices rectius judicabunt. Nobis propositum est isthæc solùm enucleare, quæ potissimum ex jure de hac materia, quatenus huc facit, observanda sunt. Quantum autem fabricatio & instructio navium ad mercaturæ cultum, & maris portusque tutelam habeat momentum, satis perpen- den.
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16 Ioh. Loccenii IV. Who are to be chosen to build a ship, and whether others may be substituted for them; to what they are bound. V. Of a ship made from another’s materials: whose it is, whether that of the maker or of the owner of the materials. VI. A ship’s body consists of composite parts and does not properly admit of division, which is illustrated by examples. VII. What is due in the case of a ship bequeathed, or of the usufruct of it, is discussed incidentally, and how much is owed. VIII. Likewise in the agreement not to sue for a ship. IX. What constitutes an outfitted ship. X. Whether a boat is also included under the name of equipment. I. After the origin and causes of navigation, there next follows the building and equipping of ships. It is not, however, the purpose of this place or of our plan to show how ships are to be constructed from suitable material cut at the proper time, or how they are to be built in due proportion and size: concerning these matters the craftsmen themselves will judge more rightly. Our purpose is only to set forth those things which must especially be observed from the law in this matter, insofar as it applies here. How much, moreover, the building and equipping of ships contributes to the cultivation of commerce and the protection of the sea and harbors, will be sufficiently considered.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 17 dentes Imperatores ac Principes, archite- ctos & negotiatores etiam præmiis atque beneficiis ad hæc opera urgenda juvanda- que allectare voluerunt: nec minus edictis poenisque absterrere, ad quos ea res non pertineret: vel hæc impediire conantes, aut hosti hanc artem tradentes, Claudius Imp. naves mercaturæ caussa fabricantibus ma- gna commoda constituit, ut testatur Sue- tonius in vitâ Claudii cap. XIIIX. Et Scæ- vola IC. in l.3. de vac. ex excus mun. mu- neris publici vacationem præstari notat il- lis qui (præter annonam adjutam) fabrica- rint naves marinas certorum modiorum. Senatoribus autem hanc vacationem da- tam negat: quod illis ex lege Iulia repe- tundarum navem habere non liceret d. l.3. in fin. Sed & præsides provinc. in ea pro- vincia, in qua administrabant, navem ædi- ficare prohibebantur l.46. ß.2. D. de jure fisci: ne adquirendi & negotiandi promiscua libertate studioque quæsius à publica ad- ministratione avocarentur, aut commoda mercatorum interciperent. II. Aliàs credentes pecuniam in navim fabricandam, instruendam aut reficiendam, in jure R. aliis creditoribus post fiscum sunt potiores l.26. l.34. D. de privil. cred. l.5.6. D. qui pot. in pign. Nov.97. cap.3. quod inprimis utilitati publicæ datum, quæ ex
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 17 Former emperors and princes, indeed, were willing to attract architects and merchants also by rewards and benefits to urge and assist these works; nor less to deter by edicts and penalties those to whom that matter did not pertain, or who attempted to hinder them, or to hand this art over to the enemy. The Emperor Claudius established great advantages for those building ships for the sake of trade, as Suetonius testifies in the Life of Claudius, ch. XIIIX. And Scaevola, the jurist, notes in l. 3. de vac. ex excus mun. that exemption from public office is granted to those who (besides supplying grain) have built sea-going ships of a certain number of measures. But he denies that this exemption was given to senators, because by the Julian law on extortion they were not allowed to have a ship, d. l. 3. in fin. Yet also provincial governors were prohibited from building a ship in the province in which they administered, l. 46. § 2. D. de jure fisci: lest they be drawn away from public administration by the common freedom of acquiring and trading and by the pursuit of gain, or intercept the profits of merchants. II. Otherwise, those who lend money for the building, outfitting, or repairing of a ship are, in Roman law, preferred before other creditors after the fiscus, l. 26. l. 34. D. de privil. cred. l. 5. 6. D. qui pot. in pign. Nov. 97. cap. 3. which has been granted especially for the public utility, which from
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18 Ioh. Loccenii ex navium fabricatione, numero, robore & usu capitur. vid. Loes. in Digesta, Tit. de privil. credit. n. I 1. Post utilitatem pub. tale creditum quoque salvam facit totius pignoris caussam. vid. inf. lib. 3. c. 3. ß. 1. in fin. Ex consuetudine Belgarum instrumentum pecuniæ in navem extruendam vel instruendam creditæ præsertur instrumento foenoris nautici. unde usuvenire observat cl. Vinnius ad Peckii Commentar. in LL. Nautic. pag 95. ut credentes pecuniam in foenus nauticum sæpe incidant in damnum, præsente nimirum instrumento crediti in navem fabricandam aut instruendam: quod creditorem tempore creditæ in foenus nauticum pecuniæ latebat. Itaque diligentiori inquisitione hic opus erit. III. Capitalis poena lege R. in illos decreta est, qui docent barbaros artem fabricandi naves, ante illis incognitam l. 25. Cod. de poenis. Per barbaros hic intelligi alienigenas, qui imperio R. non parent, nec eis amici sunt, colligere est ex l. 2. Cod. quæ res export. non deb. Anno Christi MDLXIII. communi conventus Lubecæ habiti, & civitatum Hanseaticarum decreto interdictum fuit, ne commercio Christianorum barbari, & inprimis illius temporis tyrannus Moschorum Iohannes Basilides, rariores artes ipsis ignotas, & quæ ad rem na- valem
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18 Ioh. Loccenius is concerned with the construction, number, strength, and use of ships. see Loes. in the Digests, Title concerning privileged creditors, no. 11. After the public utility, such a credit also preserves the cause of the whole pledge in safety. see below, lib. 3, c. 3, §. 1, at the end. By the custom of the Belgians, an instrument for money loaned to be expended in the building or equipping of a ship is preferred to the instrument of nautical interest. Hence, as the learned Vinnius observes on Peckius’s Commentary on the Nautical Laws, p. 95, those who lend money at nautical interest often incur loss, with the instrument of the credit for building or equipping a ship naturally being present: which at the time of the loan at nautical interest was unknown to the creditor. Therefore a more diligent investigation will be needed here. III. The capital penalty was decreed by R. law against those who teach barbarians the art of building ships, previously unknown to them, l. 25. Cod. de poenis. By barbarians here are to be understood foreigners, who do not obey the Roman empire and are not its friends, as may be gathered from l. 2, Cod. quæ res export. non deb. In the year of Christ 1563, by the common decree of the assembly held at Lübeck and of the Hanseatic cities, it was forbidden that Christians should have commerce with barbarians, and especially with that tyrant of the time, John Basilides of the Muscovites, in rarer arts unknown to them, and those which belong to naval matters
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De Iure Maritimo Lib I. 19 valem, militarem & tormentariam perti- nent, edocerentur. Sic enim existimabant, ubi classis potestas fieret, non solum in Li- voniam, sed etiam in Germaniam effuso exercitu penetraturos; ut notat Thuanus lib. XXXVI. Histor. Ita memoria nostra, inquit idem, Turcos Genuensium lucri cu- piditate illectorum frequentatione rem na- valem edoctos, Hellesponsum transmitisse; & inde Græcis transtugis & piratis adjuto- ribus classe instructa Constantinopolin im- perii Orientalis caput, & mox Macedo- niam, Illyricum & universam Peloponne- sum in potestatem redegisse constat Quam- vis autem hujusmodi poenæ & edicta pru- denti & reipub. Christianæ utili consilio sint constituta: ne subditi suis ingeniis & arte contra se arment & instruant vires barbarorum; tamen serum esse videtur, ho- die tale quid prohibere: cum hæc ars omni- bus ferme populis nunc cognita sit, aut peritorum industriâ pecuniæ studio alle- etâ passim tradatur. Hoc tamen nonnullo- rum populorum statutis adhuc cautum est, ne peregrinis apud se exstruere navem li- ceat, nisi cum consensu Senatus, & tot nummorum summâ solutâ, quot ampho- rarum navis esse debet: ita Statut Dantisc. part. 1. cap 4. art. 3. sancitum est. Ratio in promtu est, ut hujus commodi magis do- me-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib I. 19 they were instructed in what concerned ships, military affairs, and artillery. For thus they believed that, once the power of a fleet was established, they would be able to penetrate not only into Livonia, but also into Germany with an army thrown in; as Thuanus notes, lib. XXXVI. Histor. So in our memory, he says, the Turks, enticed by the desire of gain, having been taught naval matters through frequent contact with the Genoese, crossed the Hellespont; and from there, with Greek turncoats and pirate helpers added, and a fleet equipped, they took Constantinople, the head of the Eastern empire, and soon reduced Macedonia, Illyricum, and the whole of the Peloponnese into their power. Although laws and edicts of this kind have been established by prudent counsel and for the benefit of the Christian commonwealth, lest subjects arm and equip against themselves the strength of the barbarians with their own skill and art; nevertheless it seems too late today to prohibit such a thing, since this art is now known to almost all peoples, or is everywhere handed down by the industry of the skilled, drawn on by the desire for money. Still, by the statutes of some peoples it is even now provided that it is not permitted for foreigners to build a ship among them, unless with the consent of the Senate and payment of as many coins as the ship ought to contain amphorae: thus it is sanctioned in the Statutes of Dantisc. part. 1. cap. 4. art. 3. The reason is at hand, namely, that the advantage of this may more at home-
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20 Ioh. Loccenii mestici & cives, quam exteri participes reddantur. IV. Idoneos & peritos architectos ad fabricandam navem adscisci, ratio ipsa facile docet; præpositis, ubi usus exigit, curatoribus & inspectoribus, qui opus promoveant & exigant; de quibus l. 18. ß. 10. D. de mun. & honor. Vbi verò navem à se fabricandam quis promisit, & hoc specialiter actum est, ut suis operis perficiat, alius ipsi substitui nequit; nisi aliter convenerit l. 31. D. de solut. arg. l. 12. ß. 6. D. de usu & hab. aut nisi per imperitiam, qui peritiam professus est, perdat opus. tunc enim ex damno tenetur; aut si inopiâ laboret, arbitrariâ animadversione. l. 132. D. de reg. jur. l. 12. ß. 8. C. de ædif. priv. domino autem hîc integrum erit alium eligere Statut. Gedan. p. 1. c. 4. a. 8. Si navis exstructio aversione locata sit, i. e. totius pro indiviso una mercede, periculo conductoris, donec approbetur, locatio facta l. 36. D. loc. cond. operis faciendi debitor, nisi consummationem operi addiderit, non liberatur. Sed aut consummabit, aut ex dispendio, quod dominus inde sensit, tenebitur d. l. 12. ß. 8. de ædif. pr. facti enim obligatio est individua, ita ut corpus ex opere locato perficiatur l. 5. ß. 1. D. de verb. signif. l. 80. ß. 1. D. ad leg. Falcid. Hag. de usur. c. X. n. 82.
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20 Ioh. Loccenii citizens and natives, than outsiders, are made participants. IV. That suitable and skilled architects should be engaged to build a ship, common sense itself easily teaches; with supervisors and inspectors appointed, where need requires, who may advance and require the work; concerning whom see l. 18. §. 10. D. de mun. & honor. But where someone has promised that he himself will build the ship, and this has been specifically agreed, so that he completes it with his own work, another cannot be substituted for him; unless it has been agreed otherwise, l. 31. D. de solut. arg. l. 12. §. 6. D. de usu & hab. or unless, through incompetence, he who professed skill loses the work. Then indeed he is liable for the loss; or if he is in need, by discretionary penalty. l. 132. D. de reg. jur. l. 12. §. 8. C. de ædif. priv. But here the owner will be free to choose another, Statut. Gedan. p. 1. c. 4. a. 8. If the construction of a ship has been let out by aversione, that is, for one entire lump sum for the whole work undivided, at the contractor’s risk until it is approved, the letting having been made, l. 36. D. loc. cond. operis faciendi the debtor is not released unless he has added completion to the work. But either he will complete it, or he will be liable for the loss which the owner has thereby suffered, d. l. 12. §. 8. de ædif. pr. for the obligation of the act is indivisible, so that the body is completed from the work let out, l. 5. §. 1. D. de verb. signif. l. 80. §. 1. D. ad leg. Falcid. Hag. de usur. c. X. n. 82.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib.1. 21 n. 82. 83. Si verò certâ ac definitâ formâ navis extruenda sit locata, satis erit secundum præscriptum modum ac conventam formam opus esse consummatum. ex conventionis enim forma finem suum quoque consecutum est opus: & ipsa conventio actionem format in bonæ fidei judiciis l.7. §.5. de pact. quale est locatio conductio §.28. Inst. de Action. Conf. Goedd. ad l.5. de V.S.n. 13. Si navem fieri stipulatus sim, atque, si non feceris ad dictum tempus, centum, hujusmodi poenali stipulatione quasi novatio prioris obligationis sit l.44. §.6. D. de oblig. & act. ita ut post moram centum præstentur. vid Bronchorst. cent.4. assert. 61. Res autem & poena simul exigi nequit, nisi nominatim de utroque præstando cautum sit. arg. l.115. in fin. de verb. oblig. Hotoman. ill quæst. 10. fusè. V. Si navis ædificetur ex alienis tabulis, disceptatur inter Iurisconsultos, num ædificantis sit, an verò domini tabularum. Nonnulli hîc ita distinguunt, si aut vetus navis reficiatur, aut planè nova fiat. Si navis ex aliena materia refecta sit, eam manere reficientis volunt, per l.61. D. de rei vindic. [salva tamen æstimatione tabularum] quia hîc non sit nova species, sed manet vetus: ut neque ædes per partes refectæ aliæ sunt. Si verò navis ex alienis tabulis no-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib.1. 21 n. 82. 83. But if a ship is to be built to a certain and definite form by contract, it will be sufficient that the work be completed according to the prescribed method and agreed form. For by the form of the agreement the work itself has likewise attained its end; and the agreement itself creates an action in cases judged in good faith, l. 7. §. 5. de pact. such as locatio conductio, §. 28. Inst. de Action. Conf. Goedd. ad l. 5. de V.S. n. 13. If I have stipulated that a ship be made, and, if you do not make it by the stated time, one hundred, by such penal stipulation there is as it were a novation of the prior obligation, l. 44. §. 6. D. de oblig. & act. so that after default the one hundred must be paid. vid. Bronchorst. cent. 4. assert. 61. But the thing itself and the penalty cannot be claimed at the same time, unless it has been expressly provided that both are to be paid. arg. l. 115. in fin. de verb. oblig. Hotoman. ill quæst. 10. fusè. V. If a ship is built from another man’s planks, the jurists dispute whether it belongs to the builder or rather to the owner of the planks. Some here distinguish thus, whether an old ship is repaired or a completely new one is made. If a ship has been repaired from another’s material, they hold that it remains the property of the one who repaired it, by l. 61. D. de rei vindic. [the valuation of the planks, however, being preserved] because here there is no new species, but the old remains: just as buildings repaired in parts are not something else. But if a ship from another’s planks no-
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22 Ioh. Loccenii nova facta sit, non facientis, sed materiæ domini esse volunt, salvis impensis exstru- ctionis: quia proprietas totius navis, carina (i.e. compagis navis, ut hîc carinam accipi volunt, vel expectatæ qualitatis quæ ei in- dita est à materiæ domino) caussam sequi- tur. d. l. 61. de rei vindic. l. 26. de acq. rer. dom. Lyklama lib. 7. Membran. ecl. 3. Alii tamen secundum naturalem æquitatem hic locum communioni, pro rata ejus quanti unumquodque est, relinquendum judicant. Grot. lib. 2. de jurebell. & pac. c. 8. ß. 19. VI. Quando navis est ædificata, corpus quoddam ex compositis esse dicitur. Græ- cis . Plutarch. in præc. commub. Pomponius Ic. in l. 30. D. de usurp. Sicut ædium unum corpus est ex cohærentibus lapidibus, tignis & recto ß. 18. Inst. de Le- gat. Itaque sine dissolutione totius & di- minurione vel privatione veri usus non po- test dici dividi navis. Huc facit jocus Cas- selli IC. apud Macrobiuim 1. Saturnal. c. 6. qui mercatori, quomodo cum socio navim dividere oporteret, consulenti respondit: Navim si dividis, nec tu nec socius habebis, vel, ut est apud Fabium lib. 5. Orat. Inst. c. 4. Navem dividere volo, Perdes, inquit. Itaque Q. Fabius Labeo Legatus Rom. dolo egit, dum in foedere cum Antiocho Rege, quo con-
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22 Ioh. Loccenius whether what has been newly made belongs, not to the maker, but to the owner of the material, provided the costs of construction are reimbursed: because ownership of the whole ship, the keel (that is, the framework of the ship, as they here wish to understand keel, or the quality expected in it, which was imparted to it by the owner of the material) follows the cause. d. l. 61. de rei vindic. l. 26. de acq. rer. dom. Lyklama lib. 7. Membran. ecl. 3. Others, however, judge that according to natural equity, the place here should be left to community, in proportion to the amount that each thing is worth. Grot. lib. 2. de jurebell. & pac. c. 8. §. 19. VI. When a ship has been built, it is said to be a certain body composed of parts. Among the Greeks. Plutarch. in præc. commub. Pomponius the jurist in l. 30. D. de usurp. Likewise a house is one body made from stones, beams cohering together, & upright posts §. 18. Inst. de Legat. Therefore, without the dissolution of the whole and without diminution or deprivation of its true use, the ship cannot be said to be divided. To this point belongs the jest of the jurist Casselius apud Macrobiuim 1. Saturnal. c. 6, who, when a merchant consulting him as to how he ought to divide a ship with his partner, replied: If you divide the ship, neither you nor your partner will have it; or, as it is in Fabius lib. 5. Orat. Inst. c. 4: I wish to divide the ship, “You will destroy it,” he said. And so Q. Fabius Labeo, Roman legate, acted deceitfully, while in the treaty with King Antiochus, in which it
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 23 conventum erat, ut captarum navium par- tem dimidiam reciperet, medias omnes se- cuit, ut eum tota classe privaret. Val. Max. 7, 3, 4. Pars enim dimidia navium integra- rum in divisione ipsi præstanda erat, non se- ctarum. Proinde si pluribus sociis aut hære- dibus una navis communis sit, quæ commo- dè non recipit divisionem, præstat in solven- da societate aut dividenda hæreditate inte- gram uni adjudicari, & alterum in æstima- tionem suæ portionis æquam pecuniæ sum- mam alteri præstare. l. 192. D. de reg. jur. Stat. Lub. 3, 13. Cæterum si navis hac mente resoluta sit, ut in alium usum tabu- læ destinentur, licet mutato consilio perfi- ciatur, tamen & peremta prior navis, & hæc alia dicenda est. Sed si reficiendæ navis caussa omnes tabulæ refixæ sint, nondum intercidisse navis videtur, & compositis rur- sus eadem esse incipit. sicuti de ædibus de- posita tigna ea mente ut reponantur, ædium sunt. sed si usque ad arcam deposita sit, licet eadem materia restituatur, alia erit. l. 83. ß. 5. D. de verb. oblig. VII. Item nave legata, quæ postea disso- luta est, neque navis neque materia debe- tur. l. 88. ß. 2. de Legat. 3. quia velut esse de- fiit. Gloss. hîc. & separatione ac dissolutione compositorum ex quibus navis constat, ipsum corpus intelligi nequit. Idem in usu-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 23 an agreement had been made that he should receive half of the captured ships, he cut all the ships in two, so as to deprive him of the whole fleet. Val. Max. 7, 3, 4. For in the division he was to be given half of the intact ships, not of ships cut apart. Therefore, if one ship is common to several partners or heirs, and cannot conveniently be divided, it is better, in the settlement of the partnership or the division of the inheritance, for the whole ship to be allotted to one, and for the other to pay the other an equal sum of money in estimation of his share. l. 192. D. de reg. jur. Stat. Lub. 3, 13. Moreover, if a ship has been dismantled with the intention that the planks be used for another purpose, even if the plan is changed and it is completed, nevertheless the former ship is both destroyed and this other one must be called a different ship. But if all the planks have been taken apart for the purpose of repairing the ship, it does not yet appear that the ship has perished, and once reassembled it begins to be the same again. just as in the case of buildings, timber laid aside with the intention that it be put back belongs to the building. but if it has been laid aside all the way to the frame, then, although the same material be restored, it will be another. l. 83. ß. 5. D. de verb. oblig. VII. Likewise, if a ship that had been bequeathed is later dismantled, neither the ship nor the material is owed. l. 88. ß. 2. de Legat. 3. because it had as it were ceased to exist. Gloss. here. And by the separation and dissolution of the components of which the ship consists, the body itself cannot be understood. The same in us-
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24 Ioh. Loccenii usufructu navis dissolutæ legato statuit Sabinus IC. in l.10. 7. D. quib. mod. ususfr. v. u. a. Testator enim ipso facto hîc mutasse voluntatem suam præsumitur. Si verò manente eadem carina, navis alicujus specialiter legata, aut promissa, & per partes tota resoluta & refecta sit, nihilominus navis recte vendicabitur. l.24. 4. de legat. 1. l. 76. D. de judic. ubi vid. Gothofr. de Thesei nave, l.8. 8. D. de solut. d. l.83. 5. de V. O. quia navis hic cedit carinæ tanquam principali subjecto & fundamento suo. Plautus eo alludit in Mil. glor. a. 111. sc. 111. ubi fundatam constitutam carinam velut principale ponit. Verba ejus hæc sunt: Vbi probus est architectus, Bene lineatam si semel carinam collocavit, Facile esse navem facere, ubi fundata constituta est. Nunc hæc carina satis probè fundata constituta est. Vt quidam ibi legendum putant. Sed & corpus idem esse non desinit, manente specie, etiamsi partibus mutatis. vid. Grot. de jur. b. c. p. 11. IX. 111. ib. in Not. de verit. relig. Christ. p. 112. 340. Zas. ad d. l. 24. 4. de Legat. 1. VIII. Si quis pactus sit, ne uavem peteret, hac dissoluta singulas tabulas petere nequit: sed pacti conventi exceptione sub- move-
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24. Ioh. Loccenii Sabinus, in l. 10. § 7. D. quib. mod. usufr. statuit that, with a legacy of the usufruct of a ship that has been broken up, the testator is presumed in fact to have changed his will. But if, while the same keel remains, a ship specially bequeathed or promised has been taken apart in all its parts and rebuilt, nevertheless the ship may rightly be claimed. l. 24. § 4. de legat. 1. l. 76. D. de judic. where see Gothofredus, on Theseus’ ship, l. 8. § 8. D. de solut. d. l. 83. § 5. de V. O. because the ship here yields to the keel as to its principal subject and foundation. Plautus alludes to this in Mil. glor. a. 111, sc. 111, where he treats the keel, once laid and set in place, as the principal thing. His words are these: Where the builder is skilled, if he has once set the well-lined keel in place, it is easy to make a ship, when it has been founded and set. Now this keel is founded and set quite well, as some think should be read there. But the body does not cease to be the same so long as the form remains, even though the parts have been changed. see Grot. de jur. b. c. p. 11. IX. 111. ib. in Not. de verit. relig. Christ. p. 112. 340. Zas. ad d. l. 24. § 4. de Legat. 1. VIII. If someone has agreed that he should not claim a ship, he cannot, after it has been broken up, claim the individual planks; but he is barred by the exception of the agreement concluded.
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De lure Maritimo Lib I. 25 movebitur nisi specialiter a iud actum sit. l.27 ß.8. ff. de pact. Totum enim compositum pactus est ne peteret, tabula autem sunt pars compositi: quo dissoluto, totum esse non intelligitur. IX. Navis ædificata etiam, præter commeatum. instruenda est, ut scimus, gubernaculo, malo, antenna, velis, anchors, & aliis necessarius partibus: quæ membra navis in l.44. D. de evict. instrumenta in l.29. D. de instr. vel instrum. leg. armamenta in l.6. de leg. Rhod. l 3 ß.1. de rei vindic l.5 qui pot. impign & Cæsari lib.1. & 111 belli civ. dicuntur, ut Græcis [n]o[n] quæ navis gratia parantur l 2. ß 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de pactu, & navis iis utilis ad navigandum redditur l.242. D. de verb. sig. Licet autem lavolenus & Labeo in a. l. de V. S artemonem negent partem esse navis, cum magis sit pro adjectamento; tamen non duobitandum est, quon sit instrumentum navis. Aleat. ad l. CCXLII. de V S. quo navis quoque utilis ad navigandum redditur. Quippe rei accessiones & instrumenta, si non essentialem principis rei partem, utique aptam & usui accom- modatam constituunt, ut artemon, clavi, remi, scapha, cæteraque quibus armatur & instruitur navis. Former ad l. Malum navis. Si quis ergo navem cum instrumentis, B vel
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 25 is not moved unless something has been done especially by the judge. l. 27 §. 8. ff. de pact. For the whole agreement was that he should not sue; but the planks are part of the agreement: once that is dissolved, the whole is not understood to exist. IX. A ship, once built, must also, besides provisions, be equipped, as we know, with a rudder, mast, yard, sails, anchors, & other necessary parts: these members of a ship are called in l. 44. D. de evict. instruments, in l. 29. D. de instr. vel instrum. leg. rigging in l. 6. de leg. Rhod. l. 3 §. 1. de rei vindic. l. 5 qui pot. impign. & Caesar lib. 1. & 111 belli civ. as the Greeks [n]o[n] things prepared for the sake of the ship, l. 2. §. 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de pactu, and the ship is thereby made useful for sailing, l. 242. D. de verb. sig. Although Lavolenus and Labeo in a. l. de V. S. deny that the artemon is a part of the ship, since it is rather something added on; yet there is no doubt that it is an instrument of the ship. Aleat. ad l. CCXLII. de V. S. whereby the ship is likewise made useful for sailing. For accessories and instruments of a thing, if not an essential principal part, certainly constitute something fit and adapted to use, as the artemon, nails, oars, boat, and the other things with which a ship is equipped and furnished. Former ad l. Malum navis. If therefore anyone buys a ship with the instruments, B or
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26 Ioh. Loccenii vel perfectam & instructam emerit, omnes hæ partes à venditore præstandæ erunt. X. Sed majoris dubitationis est, an, si quis navem cum instrumento legaverit aut emerit, præstanda sit scapha navis? Labeo quidem ita statuebat in l. ult. D. de instruct. vel instrum. leg. Sed Paulus, Pomponius, Alfenus & Vlpianus negabant in d. l. & l. 44. D. de evict. & quidem his argumentis: quod scapha non esset conjuncta navi, ut alia membra navis, sed per se parva navicula, separata à navi: nec ejusdem generis cum instrumento navis. Verùm ad hoc regeri potest: Etiam armamenta separari à navi queunt arg. l. 3. ß. 1. ff. de rei vindic. & tamen necessariæ partes navis sunt d. l. 44. D. de evict. Et licet scapha non sit ejusdem generis cum instrumento navis, tamen genere convenit cum ipsa navi, nec ab ea nisi quantitate differt; ut ipse Paulus fatetur in l. 29. D. de instr. vel instrum. leg. Sed quidquid sit, Labeonis sententia stare potest in casu legatæ aut venditæ navis plenè instructæ, & cum omni accessione, sequela & partibus ejus. Vt enim partes ædium dicuntur, quæ perpetui usus causa parata sunt l. 242. ß. 4. de verb. signif. & quibus ædes perficiuntur l. 245. de V. S. ita scapha potest dici pars navis, quatenus necessarium usum navi præbet, & navigatio
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26 Ioh. Loccenii or if he has bought a ship complete and furnished, then all these parts are to be supplied by the seller. X. But a greater doubt arises whether, if someone has bequeathed or sold a ship with its equipment, the ship’s boat must also be delivered. Labeo indeed so ruled in l. ult. D. de instruct. vel instrum. leg. But Paulus, Pomponius, Alfenus, and Ulpian denied it in d. l. and l. 44. D. de evict., and indeed on these grounds: that the boat was not joined to the ship, like the other parts of the ship, but was by itself a small craft, separate from the ship; nor was it of the same kind as the ship’s equipment. Yet to this it may be replied: even rigging may be separated from a ship, arg. l. 3. ß. 1. ff. de rei vindic., and yet it is a necessary part of the ship, d. l. 44. D. de evict. And although the boat is not of the same kind as the ship’s equipment, still it agrees in kind with the ship itself, and differs from it only in size; as Paulus himself admits in l. 29. D. de instr. vel instrum. leg. But whatever may be said, Labeo’s opinion can stand in the case of a ship bequeathed or sold fully equipped, and with all its appurtenances, retinue, and parts. For just as those are called parts of buildings which are provided for the sake of permanent use, l. 242. ß. 4. de verb. signif., and by which buildings are completed, l. 245. de V. S., so the boat may be called a part of the ship, insofar as it provides necessary use to the ship, and navigation
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De Maritimo Lib. I. 27 tio sine eâ commodè perfici nequit. Vide quoque Vinnium ad Peck. in tit. de Exerc. act. pag. 80. ubi post alia probat Baldi & Strachæ sententiam scribentium, publicatâ navi scapham, tanquam separatum quid. non intelligi publicatam; quod & aliàs poenæ restringi solent. CAP. III. De jure navigandi. I. Finis & usus navis. II. Quid sit jus navigandi. III. Illud esse commune, probatur ex jure naturæ gentium, divino & civili. IV. Ius aut servitus navigandi per lacum alterius. I. QVando navis fabricata & instructa est, ad hunc finem & usum paratur, ut naviget, veluti Vlpianus ait in l. 12. ß. 1. D. de usufr. & res ipsa hoc satis indicat. Vt autem constet, justam esse navigationem, de ejus jure nonnulla observabimus. II. Ius navigandi est innoxia facultas transfretandi ad vicinos aut remotos populos, à jure naturæ, gentium, divino & civili permissa, aut foederis, amicitiæ, societatis contemplatione ob communio- B a
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From De Maritimo Lib. I. 27 this cannot be suitably carried out without it. See also Vinnius on Peck., in the title de Exerc. act. p. 80, where, among other things, he proves the opinion of Baldus and Stracha, that when a ship is confiscated, the boat, as something separate, is not understood to be confiscated; for penalties are also usually to be construed narrowly. CAP. III. On the right of navigating. I. The end and use of a ship. II. What the right of navigating is. III. That it is common, proved from natural law, the law of nations, divine law, and civil law. IV. The right or servitude of navigating over another’s lake. I. When a ship has been built and fitted out, it is prepared for this end and use, namely, that it may sail, as Ulpian says in l. 12, § 1, D. de usufr. ; and the thing itself sufficiently indicates this. But in order that it may be clear that navigation is lawful, we shall observe a few things concerning its right. II. The right of navigating is a harmless faculty of crossing over to neighboring or distant peoples, permitted by natural law, the law of nations, divine law, and civil law, or by reason of treaty, friendship, and association, with regard to common- B a
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28 Ioh. Loccenii nem commerciorum libera; aut jure servitutis in lacu perpetuo debita. III. Si enim est libera negotiandi facultas, utique etiam id, sine quo illa commodè exerceri nequit, liberum erit, nimirum jus navigandi, aut trajiciendi mare: sive id expresso pacto, sive tacito consensu fiat. Hoc primo juri naturæ convenit. Cum enim non omnia apud omnes hominum usui necessaria proveniant, ex noto hocæ dicto: Nec verò terræ ferre omnes omnia possunt; ideò Deus per naturam velut fidam humanæ necessitatis omnium hic o dinavit, ut usibus hominum per navigationes & commercia succurreretur, & societatis humanæ vinculum conservaretur. Tullius . Offic. Servanda est in societate communitas omnium rerum, quas ad communem hominum uum natura genuit. Idem ibid. Quidquid fine detrimento accomodari potest, id tribuatur vel ignoto. Ex quo sunt illa communia, Non prohibere aqua profluente, Putt ab igne ignem capere. Hinc etiam mare dicitur naturâ omnibus patere in l 13. D. comm. præd. & ex jure gentium commercia esse instituta in l 5. D de just. O jur. quod ita communi consensu gentes cultiores semper observarunt; nisi justa cuipiam denegandi causâ lubesset. Quo præterea fine Deus usum maris
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28 Ioh. Loccenii neither commerce free; or owing by the law of servitude in a perpetual lake. III. For if there is a free faculty of trading, then surely also that without which it cannot be conveniently exercised will be free, namely the right of sailing, or crossing the sea: whether this is done by express agreement or by tacit consent. This agrees with the first law of nature. For since not all things necessary for human use are produced among all people, from that well-known saying: Neither truly can all lands bear all things; therefore God, through nature, as it were a faithful provider for human necessity, has here ordained all things, so that by navigation and commerce the needs of men might be relieved, and the bond of human society preserved. Tully, Offic. The community of all things, which nature has produced for the common use of men, must be preserved in society. The same, ibid. Whatever can be accommodated without detriment should be granted even to the unknown. From this are those common maxims, not to forbid running water, to take fire from fire. Hence also the sea is said by nature to be open to all in l. 13. D. comm. præd. and by the law of nations commerce is held to have been established in l. 5. D. de just. O jur., which in this way by common consent the more civilized nations have always observed; unless a just cause for denying it to anyone should arise. For which further purpose God the use of the sea
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 29 maris & Alumnum omnibus hominibus communem fecisset tam ante quam post diluvium Gen. 1. v. 28. Gen. 9. v. 2. nisi omnibus cum effectu patere etiam in na- vigandi commoditate voluisset? Seneca lib. 4. de benefic. cap. 28. Deus quædam in universum humano generi dedit, à quibus excluditur nemo. nec enim poterat fieri, ut ventus bonis viris secundus esset, contrarium malis. Commune autem bonum erat patere commercium maris, & regnum humani gene- ris relaxari. Hisce consentit lus Civile, quod mare & litora maris vult esse com- munia ipso jure naturæ ß. 1. Inst. de rer. div. l. 3. ß. 1. Ne quid in loco pub. & Alumi- num publicorum dicitur communis usus, sicut viarum publicarum & litorum in l. 24. de damn. inf. vid. & Tit. Dig. ut in flum. pub. navigare lic. Et in jure vetatur aliquid fieri in mari, quo navigationis usus impediatur. Adversus eum qui molem in mare projecit, utile edictum competit illi cui hæc res nocitura est l. 2. ß. 8. D. Ne quid in loco pub. aut si quid in mari fiat, quo statio aut iter navigiis deterius fiat l. 1. ß. 17 D. de flum. ne quid in flum. pub. ripare ejus fiat, quo perus navigetur, & toto hoc tit. item tit. seq. Ne quid in flum. pub. Invita- runt insuper veteres Imperatores ac Prin- cipes, navigantes immunitatibus, collegio- B 3 rum
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 29 ...would have made the sea and its use common to all men, both before and after the Flood, Gen. 1, v. 28; Gen. 9, v. 2, unless he had wished it to be open in fact to all, even in the convenience of navigation? Seneca, lib. 4 de Benefic. cap. 28: God has given certain things to mankind in general, from which no one is excluded; for it could not be that the wind should be favorable to good men and contrary to the wicked. But it was a common good that the commerce of the sea should be open, and the dominion of mankind relaxed. To this the civil law agrees, which declares the sea and the shores of the sea to be common by the law of nature itself, § 1 Inst. de rer. div.; l. 3, § 1. Whatever is in a public place and is said to be for public use is common, as are public roads and shores, in l. 24 de damn. inf.; vid. and Tit. Dig. ut in flum. pub. navigare lic. And by law it is forbidden to do anything in the sea whereby the use of navigation may be impeded. Against him who has thrown up a mole into the sea, an useful edict lies for the one to whom this matter will be harmful, l. 2, § 8, D. Ne quid in loco pub. Or if anything is done in the sea whereby the anchorage or passage of ships is made worse, l. 1, § 17, D. de flum. ne quid in flum. pub. ripæ ejus fiat, quo pejus navigetur, and throughout this title, likewise the following title, Ne quid in flum. pub. Moreover, the ancient Emperors and Princes encouraged those sailing by immunities, the college...
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30 Ioh. Loccenii rum jure, successionis commodo, & aliis emolumentis ad navigandi industriam: uti videre est ex l.5. ß.3. seqq. de jure imm. l.9. ß.1. de Decur. l.5. de mun. et hon. l.1. quod cujusque un. nom. l.1. C. de hær. decor. l.24. C. de excus. tut. aliisque legibus diversorum Principum ac Rerumpub. Si igitur innoxius transitus ac navigatio per mare prohibeatur, prohibens injuriarum actione conveniri potest l.1. ß.9. ne quid in loco pub. l.13. ß.7. de injur. & qui alterum in eo quod est juris communis, absq; justa causa impedit, ad omnis damni restitutionem bonorum virorum arbitrio tenetur. Si autem juris via, vel arbitrorum judicium spernatur, visque fiat, injusta vis justè & authoritate publica repelli potest. Sed de his prolixius & accuratius egerunt Grotius in toto libello de Mari libero, inprimis in cap. I. VIII. & XIII. & Vasquius Illust. Quæst. lib. I. cap. LXXXIX. aliique. IV. Sed & navigandi jus per lacum alterius perpetuum, vel navigandi servitus imponi potest, ut per istum lacum perveniatur ad fundum vicinum. Atque si servitus sit rustica, debetur prædio rustico l.23. ß.1. D. de servit. præd. rustic. urbana, si debeatur prædio urbano. imo & personalis, si homini id jus constitutum sit. Zoesius ad d. tit. n.10. Ca-
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30 Ioh. Loccenii by the right of things, the advantage of succession, and other benefits for the practice of navigation: as may be seen from l.5. §.3. seq. de jure imm. l.9. §.1. de Decur. l.5. de mun. et hon. l.1. quod cujusque un. nom. l.1. C. de hær. decor. l.24. C. de excus. tut. and other laws of different Princes and Republics. If therefore harmless passage and navigation by sea be prohibited, the one prohibiting may be sued with an action for injuries l.1. §.9. ne quid in loco pub. l.13. §.7. de injur. and whoever hinders another in that which is of common right, without just cause, is bound to restore all damages according to the judgment of upright men. But if the legal way, or the judgment of arbitrators, is despised, and force is used, unjust force may justly be repelled by public authority. But these matters have been treated more fully and accurately by Grotius in the whole treatise de Mari libero, especially in chapters I. VIII. and XIII., and by Vasquius Illust. Quæst. lib. I. cap. LXXXIX. and others. IV. But also the right of navigation through another’s lake may be perpetual, or a servitude of navigation may be imposed, so that one may reach the neighboring estate through that lake. And if the servitude be rural, it is due to a rural estate l.23. §.1. D. de servit. præd. rustic. urban, if it be due to an urban estate. Indeed also personal, if that right has been established for a person. Zoesius ad d. tit. n.10. Ca-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 31 Cap. IV. De imperio maris. I. Libertatem navigandi dominio maris vide- ri resstringi. II. Vnde sit illud dominium. III. Quotuplex sit. quid & quale hîc intelligatur. Tentata conciliatio hîc dissidentium. IV. Modus & finis imperii maris. V. Num protectio & jurisdictio maris domi- nium adferat. VI. Quousque se extendat jurisdictio in mari. delinquentes in mari cujus loci forum sortiantur. VII. Determinationem certa navigationis non tollere omnem navigandi libertate[m]. VIII. Peregrini quatenus admittantur. IX. Quid liceat in eos qui hostibus res subve- hunt. Nec illud impedire jus commer- ciorum, cessante bello aut prohibitionis caussa. X. Velorum demissionem in occursu aut con- spectu Regiarum navium, non semper imperium maris arguere, sed honoris ar- gumentum esse: nec navigationis liber- tatem deminuere. I. AT præcedenti capite dictis obstare videtur imperium vel dominium B 4 maris,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 31 Chapter IV. On the dominion of the sea. I. It appears that the freedom of navigation is restrained by the dominion of the sea. II. Whence that dominion arises. III. Of how many kinds it is, and what and what sort is here meant. An attempted reconciliation of those who disagree here. IV. The mode and end of the dominion of the sea. V. Whether protection and jurisdiction over the sea bring with them dominion. VI. How far jurisdiction extends in the sea. Delinquents in the sea, of what place’s court they should be subject. VII. A fixed determination of navigation does not take away all freedom of navigating. VIII. In what measure foreigners are to be admitted. IX. What may be done against those who carry goods for enemies. Nor does this hinder the right of commerce, when war has ceased or for the sake of prohibition. X. Lowering sails when encountering or in sight of royal ships does not always prove dominion over the sea, but is an indication of honor; nor does it diminish the freedom of navigation. I. But the dominion or lordship of the sea seems to stand in the way of what was said in the preceding chapter, B 4 of the sea,
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32 Ioh. Loccenii maris, quo navigationis usus ad juris proprii vel commodi publici rationem referri, alisque ex arbitrio vel usu reip. concedi aut sufflaminati queat. I 1. Certum quidem est, primævo jure naturæ & conditione hominum, maris usum & proprietatem omnibus fuisse communem, sed Reges, Principes & Respublicæ liberæ ejus dominium vi imperii in terras & undas illis conjunctas paulatim ad se traxiunt. Ambrosius lib V. Hexaëmer. cap. XXX Principes spatia maris sibi vendicant juremancipii. Iste, inquit, sinus maris meus est; ille alterius. Dividunt sibi elementa potentes. Vid. & l. IX. D. de lege Rhod de jactu, & quæ in eam notavit nobiliss. juris con'ultus Iac. Gothofredus cap. VII. de imperio maris. Idem firmat verus formula deditionis (Collatinorum) apud Livium lib. 1. in qua non solum urbes, agri, & alia; sed & aqua in deditionem venire dicitur Non tamen Principes aut liberi populi imperium habent in universum mare; nec navigandi libertatem jure naturæ communem tollere possunt aut temerè impedire. I I I. Quæ de hac materia jam à viris clarissimis Grotio in Mari libero & in libris de jure belli & pacis, Seldeno in Mari clauso, Rivio in Historia navali, Pontano in Discussionibus Historicis, & ab aliis eruditè pro-
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32 Ioh. Loccenii of the sea, by which the use of navigation may be referred to the right of one’s own property or to the advantage of the public, and may be granted or restrained at the discretion or usage of the commonwealth. I 1. It is certainly established that, by the original law of nature and the condition of mankind, the use and ownership of the sea were common to all; but kings, princes, and free commonwealths have gradually drawn its dominion to themselves by force of empire over the lands and the waters adjoining them. Ambrose, book V of the Hexaëmeron, chap. XXX: “Princes claim stretches of the sea for themselves by the law of mancipation. This bay,” he says, “is my sea; that other is another’s. The powerful divide the elements among themselves.” See also l. IX. D. de lege Rhod. de jactu, and what the most noble jurist Jac. Gothofredus noted on it, chap. VII, de imperio maris. The same thing is confirmed by the true formula of surrender (of the Colatinans) in Livy, book I, in which not only cities, fields, and other things, but also water is said to come into surrender. Nevertheless, princes or free peoples do not have dominion over the whole sea; nor can they abolish or rashly hinder the freedom of navigation, which is common by the law of nature. III. What has already been written on this subject by the most illustrious men, Grotius in Mare Liberum and in the books De Jure Belli et Pacis, Selden in Mare Clausum, Rivius in Historia Navalis, Pontanus in Disputationes Historicae, and by others learnedly pro-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 33 prolixeque sunt observata, & ingeniosè utrinqve disceptata, multis hic non repetam, ne actum agam. nec illorum controversias nunc ferè quiescentes resuscitabo: præsertim cum eorum sententiæ in speciem dissidentes, si rectè acceptentur, commodè conciliari posse videantur. Si nimirum discrimen inter imperium maris universale, & particulare ejusq[ue] modum rite attendatur. Dominium maris universum & summum nulli hominum, sed soli Domino domino- rum competere, liquet ex Psal. VIIII. v. 6. Ps. LXXII. v. 8. Psal. LXXXIX. v. 10. Zach. IX. v. 10. quod Deus ergam insignibus miraculis V. & N. Testamenti facis manifestum fecit. Et nonne quotidiani instar miraculi est, (quamvis aqua cum terra unum constituat globum, & Deus naturam per media regat) divinique imperii in universum mare fructus, ac beneficium erga mortales prorsus eximium, quod vastum illum oceanum intra terminos suos Deus coërcet, ne terram impetusuo, violento æstu, ac exundatione, ut interdum minari videtur, (nec absque damno accolorum maris, si suis hoc delictis meriti sint) obruat ac submergat? de quo Hroh. cap. 38. v. 10. 11. Ier. 5, 22. quod fluctibus & ventis, quoties ipsi placet, quietem & silentium verbo aut nutu imperat. quod tot homines in tot ma- B 5
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 33 and they have been examined at length, and ingeniously argued on both sides, I shall not here repeat many things, lest I should be doing what has already been done. Nor shall I now revive controversies among them, now almost at rest: especially since their opinions, though in appearance differing, if rightly understood, seem able to be conveniently reconciled. For if indeed the distinction between universal dominion over the sea and its particular dominion and manner is duly attended to. The universal and supreme dominion of the sea belongs to no human beings, but only to the Lord, the Lord of lords, as is clear from Ps. VIIII. v. 6. Ps. LXXII. v. 8. Ps. LXXXIX. v. 10. Zach. IX. v. 10, which God made manifest by remarkable miracles of the Old and New Testament. And is it not in the manner of a daily miracle, (although water and earth make up one globe, and God governs nature through means) and a divine benefit and altogether singular act of dominion over the whole sea toward mortals, that God restrains that vast ocean within its own bounds, lest it overwhelm and submerge the land by its violent tide and overflow, as at times it seems to threaten, (and not without harm to the inhabitants of the sea, if they have deserved this by their own sins)? concerning which see Job, chap. 38, v. 10, 11. Jer. 5, 22. For He commands quiet and silence to the waves and winds, whenever it pleases Him, by His word or nod. That so many men in so many ma- B 5
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34 Ioh. Loccenii maritimis & tam periculosis itineribus servat. Cæterum quod Procopius lib. 1. de ædific. orbem in manu statuæ Imperatoris positum fuisse tradit, ὑπι γητε ἀυτῶν ἐγ[enim] διδηλωται πῶσα, quia terra ipsi & omne mare servierit, hoc ad orbem Romanum, qualis tunc erat, latitudine quadam oeconomica, per synechdochen integri referendum esse, rectè notavit Iac. Gothofredus V. CL. cap. VIII. ad 1. Deprecatio leg. Rhod. de jactu. Ita Maro de Romanis 1. AEneid. Qui mare, qui terras omni ditione tenerent. Sed mare particulare, ut vocant, vel singulare imperio Regis, Principis aut Reipub. subesse potest, quatenus est in ejus ditione; ita tamen ut usus navigationis & innoxius per id mare transitus etiam aliis ejus jurisdictioni non subjectis jure gentium & humanitatis lege pateat. Hoc discrimen ipsi authores modò laudati, si penitius inspicias, agnoscunt, utut in aliis nonnullis dissentiant. Illud paucis signare placet. Seldenus lib. 1. Mar. claus. cap. VI. Quidquid, inquit, adquirunt homines, restat semper Deo O. M ut naturæ universalis parenti, dominium illud supremum tam hominum quam rerum prorsus omnium: quod nemo sanus negaverit. Sed de dominio humano con-
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34 Ioh. Loccenius preserves from maritime and so dangerous journeys. Moreover, what Procopius relates in book 1 On Buildings, that the globe had been placed in the hand of the Emperor’s statue, ὑπι γητε ἀυτῶν ἐγ[enim] διδηλωται πῶσα, because the earth itself and every sea had served him, this must be referred to the Roman world, such as it then was, with a certain economic breadth, by synecdoche of the whole, as Jac. Gothofredus rightly noted, V. CL. chap. VIII. ad 1. Deprecatio leg. Rhod. de jactu. Thus Maro about the Romans in book 1 of the Aeneid: Who held the sea, who the lands in all authority. But a particular sea, as they call it, or a single one, may be subject to the dominion of a King, Prince, or Republic, insofar as it is within his jurisdiction; yet in such a way that the use of navigation and the harmless passage through that sea be open even to others not subject to his jurisdiction, by the law of nations and the law of humanity. This distinction the very authors just cited, if you examine more closely, acknowledge, even though in some other matters they differ. It is worth noting this briefly. Selden, book 1, Mar. claus. chap. VI. Whatever, he says, men acquire, there always remains to God Almighty, as parent of universal nature, that supreme dominion over both men and all things whatsoever: which no sane person would deny. But concerning human dominion...
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De lure Maritimo Lib. I. 35 controversia est; eo scilicet, quod usumfructum & proprietatem qualemcunque, integro semper Numinis, quod nequit minus, dominio complectitur. Et cap. XX. Humanitatis quidem officia exigunt, ut hospitio excipiantur peregrini, etiam ut innoxius non negetur transitus. quem tamen negat imperio maris privato derogare. eundem à territorii dominis temperari solere ait pro commodi pub. ratione. Vid. & cap. XXIII. & passim alibi. Simile quid Rivius lib. III. Histor. Naval. med. cap. XXXVIII. Mare (alicujus territorio subjectum) amicis, hospitibus, fæderatis, sociis denique nostris patere; hostibus verò aut alienis non item, nisi nostra id voluntate & permissione fiat. Ab hac sententia non prorsus abit Grotius, ut ipse Seldenus fatetur lib. 1. Mar. claus. cap. XXVI. pag, 218.219. In libris, inquit, de jure belli & pacis (lib. 2. c.2. §.2. & 3.) Grotius posita quidem originis privati dominii ratione in eo quod est, loca privatim assignata universorum commodis non sufficere, propter Maris magnitudinem & abundantiam inexhaustam, quæ sufficiat omnibus, in proprium id jus abire non posse concludit. Alia item adjicit de interminata Maris natura; de quibus utrisque satis est dictum superius. Sed tandem receptis populorum se moribus dedit, & de Maris proprietate seu dominio privato, ut re extra contro- B 6
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On Maritime Law, Book I, 35 there is controversy; namely, because it includes usufruct and whatever kind of ownership, always preserving the full dominion of the Deity, which cannot be lessened. And in chapter XX it is indeed the duty of humanity that strangers be received with hospitality, and that even harmless passage not be denied, which nevertheless he says does not derogate from the private dominion of the sea. He says that the same thing is usually moderated by the lords of the territory according to the advantage of the commonwealth. See also chapter XXIII and passim elsewhere. Something similar is found in Rivius, book III, Hist. Naval. med. chapter XXXVIII. The sea (subject to the territory of anyone) is open to friends, guests, allies, and lastly to our associates; but not so to enemies or strangers, unless this be done by our will and permission. From this opinion Grotius does not entirely depart, as Selden himself confesses, book 1, Mar. claus. chapter XXVI, pages 218, 219. In the books, he says, on the law of war and peace (book 2, ch. 2, § 2 & 3), Grotius, having laid down the reason of private dominion in its origin, in that what is privately assigned does not suffice for the uses of all, because of the greatness of the sea and its inexhaustible abundance, which would suffice for all, concludes that it cannot pass into a proprietary right of that kind. He also adds other things about the boundless nature of the sea; concerning both of which enough has been said above. But at length, yielding to the received customs of peoples, he gave way, and on the ownership of the sea or private dominion, as a matter outside contro- B 6
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versiam interdum concedenda, non semel loquitur. nimirum d. cap. ß. 13. & cap. 3. ß. 7. 8. lib. 2. quæ apud ipsum in dicto libro, qui in omnium fere manibus est, inspici possunt. Idem Grotius in d. cap. 3. ß. 12. ait: Illud certum est etiam qui mare occupaverit, navigationem impedire non posse inermem & innoxiam, quando nec per terram talis transitus prohiberi potest, qui & minus solet esse necessarius & magis noxius Et ß. 13. Vt autem solum imperium in maris partem sine alia proprietate occupetur, facilius potuit procedere: neque arb tror jus gentium obstare. Idem in cap. V. Mar. Lib. p. m. 44. Si quid earum rerum per naturam occupari possit, id eatenus occupantis fiat, quatenus ea occupatione usus ille promiscuus non luditur. Et pag. 63. ibid. Omnes qui mare volunt imperio alicius subjici posse, id ei attribuunt, qui proximos portus & circumjacentia littora in ditione habet. Et mox: Deinde verò etiam qui Mari imperaret, nihil tamen posset ex usu communi deminuere, sicut populus Romanus arcere neminem potuit, quo minus in littore imperii Romani cuncta faceret, quæ jure gentium permittebantur. Pontani denique libr. I I. Discussionum Historicarum cap. I I. hæc sunt verba: Mare, si ejus vastitatem videamus, esse numinis ac Dei omnipotentis, ex Psalm 115. constat. Nam de
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he speaks not once, that in some cases it is to be conceded. indeed, in d. cap. ß. 13. & cap. 3. ß. 7. 8. lib. 2. which in the same book of his, which is in the hands of almost everyone, may be consulted. The same Grotius in d. cap. 3. ß. 12. says: It is certain that even he who has occupied the sea, cannot impede unarmed and harmless navigation, when such passage cannot also be prohibited by land, a passage which is also less usually necessary and more harmful. And ß. 13. But that the mere dominion over a part of the sea may be occupied without any other property, could more easily proceed: nor do I think the law of nations stands in the way. The same in cap. V. Mar. Lib. p. m. 44. If anything of those things can by nature be occupied, it becomes the property of the occupier only to the extent that by that occupation that common use is not destroyed. And page 63. ibid. All who wish the sea to be subject to the empire of one man attribute this to him who has the neighboring ports and surrounding shores under his control. And shortly after: Then indeed even he who ruled the Sea, could nevertheless diminish nothing from common use, just as the Roman people could not prevent anyone, from doing on the shore of the Roman empire all things which by the law of nations were permitted. Finally Pontanus, book I I. of the Historical Disputations cap. I I. these are the words: The sea, if we consider its vastness, is that of a deity and of God omnipotent, as is clear from Psalm 115. For of
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 37 de partibus singulis, deque maribus particularibus nemo negaverit, alicujus esse ea domini posse. Ibid. quod sub finem ejusdem capitis subjicitur, Mare non minus ac Tellurem domini privati capax esse, lubenter concedimus, si de mari singulari id capiatur, nequaquam si de universali. Cætera brevitatis caussa prætereo, quæ apud ipsum legi possunt. IV. Si verò nostrum non est inter illos tantas componere lites, audiant Reginam Angliæ Elisabetham arbitram, quæ sic per Senatum respondit Hispanico in Anglia Legato, apud Camdenum, ad annum 1580. Rei alienæ donationem et imaginariam proprietatem, et præscriptionem, quam obtendat Rex Hispaniæ, nihil obstare, quo minus cæteri Principes commercia in Indici regionibus exerceant, et colonias ubi Hispani non incolunt, jure gentium nequaquam violato, deducant; nec non oceanum illum vastum liberè navigent: cum maris et aëris usus omnibus sit communis. Nec jus in oceanum populo aut privato cui piam possit competere, cum nec naturæ, nec usus pub. ratio occupationem permittat. Item ad annum 1602. Principes non habere ejusmodi in mare dominium, ut navigantibus ejusdem usum non minus quam aëris prohibeant. Item: Principes non habere jurisdictionem nisi
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On Maritime Law, Book I, 37: as to individual parts and particular seas, no one will deny that they can belong to an owner. Likewise, what is added at the end of the same chapter: that the sea no less than the land is capable of private ownership, we readily concede, if this is taken of a particular sea, but by no means if of the universal sea. I pass over the rest for the sake of brevity, which may be read in the author himself. IV. But if it is not ours to settle such great disputes among them, let them hear Queen Elizabeth of England as arbiter, who thus through the Senate replied to the Spanish ambassador in England, in Camden, under the year 1580: The donation of another's property, and the imaginary ownership, and prescription, which the King of Spain alleges, are no obstacle to prevent the other princes from carrying on trade in the regions of India, and from founding colonies where the Spaniards do not dwell, with the law of nations by no means violated; nor from freely navigating that vast ocean; since the use of the sea and the air is common to all. Nor can any right in the ocean belong to any people or private person, since neither nature nor the reason of public use permits occupation. Likewise, under the year 1602: princes do not have such dominion over the sea that they prohibit those navigating it from using it no less than the air. Likewise: princes do not have jurisdiction unless
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38 Ioh. Loccenii nisi in mari territoriis suis propius adjacente; idque ut navigationes sint tutæ à piratis & hostibus. Hîc modus & finis istius imperii singularis in mare simul indicatur: ut ni- mirum hoc imperium ita usurpetur, ut tamen navigantibus justus maris usus in- teger relinquatur: & ut mare purgetur à prædonibus & hostibus. Hunc finem etiam spectavit Strabo lib. XIV. Geogr. ubi de imperio maritimo Rhodi loquitur: ἰκα- λασοκράτησε πολυν ἡρών, ad longum tem- pus imperium maris habuit, statim addit: πρὸι πι λησηρια καθειλε, & piraticam sustulit. Idem Diodorus Sicul. lib. XX. adfirmat: Rhodios in commodum Gracorum aliorumque transeuntium mare prædonibus purgasse. Au- gusti inscriptio Ancyræ reperta: MARE. PACAVI. A. PRÆ- DONIBVS. V. Occasione hujus non abs re disqui- ritur, Num protectio maris ejusque pur- gatio à piratis, & animadversio in eos con- festim det dominium maris? quod non te- merè existimandum. Quamvis enim facile demus, eos qui imperium particulare ma- ris habent, navibus præsidiariis in illo dis- positis posse & debere mare tueri, prædo- nibus purgare, atque eos, ut decet, plecte- re: tutamque transeuntibus navigationem præstare: (conf. l. un. C. de classic.) quo no- mine
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38 Ioh. Loccenii except in the sea adjacent more closely to their territories; and this so that navigation may be safe from pirates & enemies. Here the measure and end of that singular dominion over the sea are also indicated: namely, that this dominion is to be exercised in such a way that nevertheless the rightful use of the sea for those navigating may remain intact; and that the sea may be cleared of plunderers & enemies. This end also was in view of Strabo, book XIV of the Geography, where he speaks of the maritime empire of Rhodes: ἰκα- λασοκράτησε πολυν ἡρών, for a long time it had dominion over the sea; he immediately adds: πρὸι πι λησηρια καθειλε, & it abolished piracy. The same Diodorus Siculus, book XX, asserts: the Rhodians, to the benefit of the Greeks and others passing through, cleared the sea of plunderers. Au- gustus’ inscription found at Ancyra: MARE. PACAVI. A. PRÆ- DONIBVS. V. On this occasion it is not irrelevant to inquire whether the protection of the sea and its clearing of pirates, and punishment of them at once, thereby grants dominion over the sea? which is not to be thought lightly. For although we readily concede that those who have a particular dominion of the sea can and ought, by placing patrol ships in it, to protect the sea, clear it of plunderers, and punish them as is fitting, and to provide safe navigation for those passing through: (comp. l. un. C. de classic.) by which name
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 39 mine etiam vectigal pendi non iniquum est; hoc tamen non est reciprocum, ut, qui mare aut flumen protegit, piratas tollit, statim habeat maris aut fluminis dominium. quippe protectio non dat dominium c. recepimus in fin. ext. de privil. Gail. 2. obs. 54,. Et piratæ tanquam communes generis humani hostes, etiam à privatis capi supplicioque tradi possunt. qua de refusius inf. in peculiari capite de Piratis. Accedit, quod protectio & jurisdictio, quæ etiam temporaria esse potest, à proprietate maris distinguenda est. Potest item hostis classe potentior, & victor, imperium maris tener; sed idem fortuna vertente amittere, vel pacefacta priori domino restituere. quod obvia passim exempla docent. Dominium autem ex sua natura perpetuum est. Sed & classes præsidio navigantium dispone- re atque piratas punire, non ex proprio, sed communi jure descendit, quod etiam aliæ liberæ gentes habere possunt. Sic Hollandi aliquando purgarunt mare prædonibus, cujus rei signum scopæ malo imposito præferebant. non tamen inde sibi proprietatem maris vindicarunt. Illud interim largiendum est, inter gentes vicinas ita convenire posse, ut capti in maris hac vel illa parte, hujus aut illius reipub. judicio sistantur, atque ad commoditatem di- stin-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 39 even the payment of a toll is not unreasonable; but this does not follow reciprocally, so that he who protects the sea or a river, and clears away pirates, should at once have dominion over the sea or river. For protection does not give ownership. c. recepimus in fin. ext. de privil. Gail. 2. obs. 54,. And pirates, as common enemies of the human race, may even be seized by private persons and handed over for punishment. On this point see further below in the special chapter on Pirates. There is also this, that protection and jurisdiction, which may even be temporary, must be distinguished from ownership of the sea. Likewise, a hostile fleet, if stronger and victorious, can hold dominion over the sea; but the same may, with the changing of fortune, lose it, or, peace having been made, restore it to the former owner. This is shown by examples everywhere at hand. Ownership, however, by its nature is perpetual. But the organizing of fleets for the protection of sailors and the punishment of pirates proceeds not from a private, but from a common right, which other free nations also may possess. Thus the Dutch at one time cleared the sea of robbers, and as a sign of this they displayed a broom fixed to the mast. Yet from this they did not claim ownership of the sea for themselves. It should meanwhile be allowed that it can be agreed among neighboring nations that those captured in this or that part of the sea shall be brought before the judgment of this or that republic, and for the convenience of di- stin-
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40 Ioh. Loccenii stinguendæ jurisdictionis fines describâtur: quod ipsos quidem hanc sibi legem dicentes non alios obligat: neque locum alicujus proprium facit, sed jus in personas contrahentium constituit. Grot. cap. V. Maris lib. V 1. Iurisdictionem autem habens in territorio vel districtu mari cohærenti, habere existimatur in mari jurisdictionem usque ad duorum dierum iter, ut D[omi]n[us] volunt. Vid. Hieron. de monte Brixiano in Tract. de Finib reg. cap. 7. n 12. 13. Bodinus lib 1. de Rep. c. ult. jure quodammodo Principum omnium maris acco'arum communi receptum esse testatur, ut sexaginta miliaribus à litore Princeps legem ad littus accedentibus dicere possit. in cujus rei fidem citat Baldum in rub. de rer. div. col. 2. ex proponas de naut. foen. Per sexaginta autem miliaria procul dubio ex mente Bald. Italica miliaria intelligit. Atque ita judicatum in causa Ducis Allobrogum, ibid. notat. Licet non desint, qui Principibus suis jus ac jurisdictionem in mari longius metari velint. Communiter tamen delictum in mari perpetratum in illa civitare vel repub. puniri solet, ad cujus jurisdictionem mare spectat, cujusque portui locus ille maris propinquior est. Quar de usu mar. consil 1. n. 3. Sed si crimen in mari inter duas urbes æqualiter distantes commissum sit, ejus co- gnitio
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40 Ioh. Loccenius the bounds of extinguished jurisdiction may be described: for this law, declaring itself indeed to bind them alone, does not bind others; nor does it make the place one’s own, but establishes a right over the persons of those contracting. Grot. cap. V. Maris lib. V 1. But one who has jurisdiction in a territory or district adjoining the sea is thought to have jurisdiction in the sea as far as a journey of two days, as the Lords will. See Hieron. de Monte Brixiano in Tract. de Finib reg. cap. 7. n. 12, 13. Bodinus lib. 1. de Rep. c. ult. testifies that by a certain right of the princes of all seas adjoining waters it has been received, so that within sixty miles from the shore a prince may make laws for those approaching the coast. In proof of this he cites Baldus in rub. de rer. div. col. 2. ex proponas de naut. foen. But by sixty miles, without doubt according to the mind of Baldus, he understands Italian miles. And thus it was judged in the cause of the Duke of Savoy, noted there. Although there are not lacking those who would measure for their princes a right and jurisdiction in the sea even farther. Yet commonly a crime committed in the sea is punished in that city or republic to whose jurisdiction the sea belongs, and whose harbor is nearest to that place of the sea. Quar de usu mar. consil. 1. n. 3. But if a crime in the sea be committed between two cities equally distant, the cognizance of it
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 41 gnitio ad utramque per concursum juris- dictionis pertinebit: quia delictum com- missum est in confinio, quod est commune utriusque civitatis. Si verò eadem pars ma- ris ad plures pertineat, illi omnes poterunt cognoscere; ita tamen ut sit præventioni locus. Prævenire autem dicitur, qui delin- quentem cepit in mari, licet alius judex prius eum citarit Ita statuit Hieronymus de monte Brix. d. loc. n. 9. 10. 1. 1. cap. 25. n. 8. VII. Præterea pactis quibusdam certi termini navigationis definiti possunt à vi- ctore, vel ab illo qui mari dominatur: quod exemplis & moribus gentium probant Grotius libr. 2. de jur. bell. e. p. cap. 3. ß. 15. Pontanus Discussi Histor. lib. 1. c. 21. illa tamen definitio imperium maris non absolutum reddit; ita ut aliorum populo- rum, ad quos illa pacta nihil pertinent, li- bertatem navigandi planè tollat, aut eos obliget. Grot. d. loc. VIII. Sed nec domini in suas terras ad quosvis mercatores & peregrinos sus- cipiendos inviti jure gentium cogi possunt; sed id facient bona cum gratia, vel ex in- dultu, commerciorum foedere, vel commu- ni humanitatis lege. modò peregrini ad li- citos portus accedant, ibique quod debent vectigal solvant, nec se indignos humana con-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 41 knowledge will pertain to both by reason of concurrent jurisdiction: because the offense was committed on the boundary, which is common to both states. But if the same part of the sea belongs to several, all of them will be able to take cognizance; provided, however, that the place of prior seizure is reserved. Moreover, he is said to have forestalled, who seized the offender at sea, although another judge had previously summoned him. Thus Jerome of Monte Brix. d. loc. n. 9. 10. 1. 1. cap. 25. n. 8. VII. Moreover, by certain agreements, definite limits of navigation may be determined by the victor, or by him who rules the sea: which Grotius, lib. 2. de jur. bell. e. p. cap. 3. ß. 15, and Pontanus, Discussi. Histor. lib. 1. c. 21, prove by examples and the customs of nations. Yet such a definition does not make maritime dominion absolute, so that it entirely takes away, or binds, the freedom of navigation of other peoples, to whom those agreements do not pertain. Grot. d. loc. VIII. But neither can the owners, by the law of nations, be compelled against their will to receive into their lands any and all merchants and foreigners; but they will do this with good will, or by grant, by treaty of commerce, or by the common law of humanity, provided that foreigners come to lawful ports and there pay the customs dues they owe, and do not show themselves unworthy of human con
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42 Ioh. Loccenii consuetudine & justis amicisque commerciis reddant; nec vetita aut illicita inferant; aut ob justum metum detineantur. Selden. lib. 1. Mar. claus. cap. 21. Riv. lib. 3. Nav. hist. med. c. 38. IX. Incidit hîc illa nobilis quæstio, Num liceat vigore imperii in mare, durante bello prohibere certarum mercium subvectiorem hosti subministrandâ ab illis qui neutrarum sunt partium, vel ab aliis? Quamvis pro varietate temporum & status hoc à nonnullis populis non eodem modo semper observatum sit, tamen quid committer & plerarumque gentium jure hîc obtineat, scire satis erit. Hoc autem in confesso, est, si libera transeundi facultas per alieni territorii mare negata sit illis qui merces hostibus advehebant, eam non tam intuitu dominii maris, quam ne hostem commeatu contra publicum interdictum juvarent, denegatam esse. Hoc ipse Seldenus, qui etiam ex hac caussa dominium maris assertum it, inficias ire nequit. quippe lib. II. Mar. claus. cap. XX. scribit, quibusdam Principibus & Rebuspub. ab Elizabetha pentibus, ut flagrante inter eam & Hispanum bello, liber ipsis esset per mare Anglicanum transitus cum annonâ in Hispaniam eam licentiam esse negatam, non solum dominii maris causa, sed inprimis ne hostibus commea-
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42 Ioh. Loccenii they shall restore by custom and by just and friendly commerce; nor bring in what is forbidden or unlawful; or be detained by just fear. Selden. lib. 1. Mar. claus. cap. 21. Riv. lib. 3. Nav. hist. med. c. 38. IX. Here arises that famous question, whether it is lawful, by virtue of empire in the sea, during war, to prohibit the carrying of certain goods to the enemy, supplied by those who are of neither side, or by others? Although according to the variety of times and states this has not always been observed in the same way by some peoples, nevertheless it will be enough to know what may be committed and what, by the law of most nations, here prevails. But this is admitted, that if free faculty of passage through the sea of another’s territory has been denied to those who were bringing merchandise to enemies, it has been denied not so much in view of the dominion of the sea, as lest they should aid the enemy with provisions against public prohibition. This Selden himself, who also on this account maintains dominion of the sea, cannot deny. For in lib. II. Mar. claus. cap. XX. he writes that certain Princes and Republics, asking Elizabeth, that, while war was raging between her and the Spaniard, it might be free for them to pass through the English sea with grain into Spain, that permission was denied, not only because of the dominion of the sea, but chiefly lest to the enemies supply-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 43 meatus adferrentur. Ibid. refert, cum naves Hanseaticorum frumento onustæ à classia- riis Anglicanis in ipsis Vlissiponis faucibus, extra territorium Angliæ marinum captæ essent, quæ per mare Scoticum & occiduum in Lusitaniam tendebant, clamitasse inde Hanseaticos, jura gentium, commerciorum, foederum violata esse; navibus ab Angla ita eo solùm nomine, quod ad hostem commeatus deferrent, captis in territorio, cujus se dominam ne obtendebat quidem Angla. Plura, si lubet, vide apud Seldenium dicto capite, & Pontanum lib. 1. Discuss. Histor. cap. XIII. Si verò imperii maritimi jus hic forte quis obtendat, tamen frequentius ex dicta caussa, quam jure imperii maritimi, edictis publicis prohibitam esse & prohiberi constat earum rerum, quibus hostis vires juvarentur, non verò ita aliarum innoxiarum mercium, transsectionem; idque quodam naturæ gentium aut belli jure. Velut Protestantes responderunt Lusitanis, cum eorum XXV. naves spoliassent, quæ in portu hærentes destinaverant frumentum Hispano tunc hosti subvehere. Iure belli licere tales spoliare naves: quippe rem edictis et constitutionibus regiis prohibitam esse, apud Thuanum Histor. lib. LXIV. Quamvis autem non semper ab extraneis hujusmodi edictorum ratio habea- tur,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 43 meatus would be brought over. In the same place he notes that, when ships of the Hanseatic League, laden with grain, had been captured by English cruisers in the very mouth of the Tagus, outside the maritime territory of England, while they were proceeding by the Scottish and western sea to Portugal, the Hanseatics thereupon cried out that the law of nations, the laws of commerce, and treaties had been violated; the ships having been captured by the English on the sole ground that they were carrying provisions to the enemy, captured within a territory, the dominion of which the English did not even pretend to assert. For more on this, if you wish, see Selden in the chapter cited, and Pontanus, book 1, Discuss. Histor. chap. XIII. But if anyone should perhaps here allege the right of maritime empire, nevertheless it is clear that, more often on the said ground than by the right of maritime empire, public edicts have forbidden and do forbid the transport of those things by which the strength of the enemy would be aided, but not so the carriage of other harmless merchandise; and this by a certain law of nations or of war. Thus the Protestants replied to the Portuguese, when they had plundered their twenty-five ships, which, lying in port, they had intended to carry grain to Spain, then the enemy. By the law of war it was permissible to plunder such ships: for indeed the matter had been prohibited by edicts and royal constitutions, as in Thuanus, Hist. book LXIV. Although, however, the reason for such edicts is not always accepted by outsiders,
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44 Ioh. Loccenii tur, sed interdum distinguant tempora, caussas, loca; tamen hoc facere eos suo periculo par est, præserrim si præmonitisint, ut sibi suoque damno caveant. Hic locum habet illud Amalasuenthæ ad Iustinianum: In hostium esse partibus, qui bello necessariæ hosti administrat, apud Procop. 1. Goth. Nec est quod quis commercandi libertatem neutrarum partium titulo excuset. Sic enim suum quæret commodum, ne aliis hoc sit fraudi & incommodo. Cum Vrbes Hanseaticæ anno MDLXXXIX graves instituerent querelas ad Reginam Angliæ, de interceptis ab Anglis sexaginta navibus in Hispaniam cum frumento & apparatu nautico tendentibus, quasi privilegia antiqua violata essent, respondit Regina: se præmonuisse, ne apparatum bellicum ad hostes regni Angliæ subveherent, subvehentes licitè intercepisse, nec aliter potuisse, nisi perniciem sibi & suo populo sponte attrahere maluisset. Privilegia quæ sunt leges privatæ, contra publicam salutem, quæ Lex suprema, non asserenda. Imo illo privilegio Regis Edwardi primi Hanseaticis indulto, disertè caveri, ne merces in terras manifestorum & notoriorum hostium regni Angliæ deveherent. &c. Neutralitatis jure ita utendamusse, ut dum alterum juvemus, alterum non lædamus. Et apud Alb. Gentilem de jur.
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44 Ioh. Loccenii tur, but sometimes they distinguish times, causes, places; yet for them to do this at their own risk is proper, especially if they are forewarned, so that they may beware for themselves and to their own loss. Here there is place for that saying of Amalasuentha to Justinian: That he is on the side of the enemies, who in war furnishes what is necessary to the enemy, apud Procop. 1. Goth. Nor is there any reason why anyone should excuse the freedom of trading under the title of neutrality. For thus he will seek his own advantage, lest this should be to the fraud and inconvenience of others. When the Hanseatic Cities in the year MDLXXXIX were making serious complaints to the Queen of England, about sixty ships intercepted by the English while heading to Spain with grain and naval equipment, as if ancient privileges had been violated, the Queen replied: that she had given warning, that they should not transport war supplies to the enemies of the realm of England; those transporting them she had lawfully intercepted, and could not have acted otherwise, unless she had preferred to draw destruction upon herself and her people of her own accord. Privileges, which are private laws, against the public safety, which is the supreme law, are not to be maintained. Indeed, in that privilege of King Edward the First granted to the Hanseatics, it is expressly provided that merchandise should not be carried into the lands of the manifest and notorious enemies of the realm of England, etc. Thus we are to use the right of neutrality, so that while we help one side, we do not injure the other. And apud Alb. Gentilem de jur.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 45 jur. bell lib. 2. c. 22. Regina Elisabetha Hansiaticis civitandibus conquerentibus, na- ves suas à classe spoliatas Anglica contra foedus, quo cavetur, ut illæ civitates tutò possent esse amicæ etiam hostibus Angliæ, & cum iis habere commercia, respondit: Non esse hoc colere cum utrisque amicitiam, si aleros ladus, juves alteros: ut imò hoc esse au- xiliari hostibus, & cum hostibus adversum altos facere. Idem est Ambrosii effarum III. de Offic c. IX. Si non potest alteri subveniri, nisi alter lædatur, commodius est neutrum ju- vari, quam gravari alterum. De illo tamen Hanseaticorum tacto vid. quoque Thuan. Hist. lib. XCVI. p. m. 470. 471. Si verò subditi foveant hostis vires commeatu, aut aliis mercibus illicitis, non solum poenæ publicationis & confiscationis advecto- rum, sed etiam capitis te obnoxios faciunt; ut est in jure R. l. 11. I de publican. l. 2. C. quæ res exp. l. un C. de istor. & itin. custod. Quin si evidentissima sit hostis no- sti in nos injustitia, & exteri eum in bello iniquissimo confirment, non tantum ci- viliter de damno, sed & criminaliter tene- ri ut is qui judici imminenti reum mani- festum eximit; & in eos statui posse quod delicto convenit, ita ut intra eum modum etiam spoliari possint, censet Grotius de jure bell. e. p. 3, 1, 5. Sed si alterius hostis noster
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 45 jur. bell lib. 2. c. 22. Queen Elizabeth, when the Hanseatic cities complained that their ships had been plundered by the English fleet contrary to the treaty, by which it was provided that those cities might safely remain friendly even with the enemies of England, and carry on تجارت with them, replied: That this was not to cultivate friendship with both sides, if you injured one side and aided the other; indeed, that this was to assist enemies and act with enemies against others. The same is the saying of Ambrose, III. de Offic. c. IX. If one cannot be helped unless the other be harmed, it is more fitting that neither be aided than that one be burdened. On that matter of the Hanseatic cities, see also Thuan. Hist. lib. XCVI. p. m. 470, 471. But if subjects support the enemy's strength with provisions or other illicit goods, they make themselves liable not only to the penalty of seizure and confiscation of what is brought, but also to capital punishment; as is in Roman law, l. 11. I de publican. l. 2. C. quæ res exp. l. un. C. de istor. & itin. custod. Nay, if the enemy's injustice against us be most evident, and foreigners strengthen him in a most unjust war, they are liable not only civilly for the damage, but also criminally, as one who removes a manifest accused person from an impending judge; and it may be determined against them according to what fits the offense, so that to that extent they may even be plundered, as Grotius thinks, de jure bell. e. p. 3, 1, 5. But if the other enemy is our
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46 Ioh. Loccenii noster sit amicus aut confæderatus, vel cujus causam justiorem esse sciamus, nonne sine offensione foederis pro eo niti, & plura amicitiæ officia ipsi præstare licet? Quamvis conjunctio & necessitudo arctior hoc suadere videatur; tamen & hîc Reges ac Principes contra quos subsidia hosti mittuntur, magis quid sibi suoque regno, quam quid hosti ejusque amicis expediat, curare eaque intercipere solent. ut in oratione sua Regina Angliæ Legato Poloniæ, qui nomine sui Regis expostulabat jus gentium esse violatum in commerciis cum Hispano affine suo prohibitis, respondit apud Camdenum ad annum 1597. Quod jus gentium toties in oratione usurpas, scire debes, exorto inter Reges bello licere uni parti auxilia vel subsidia ad alteram missa intercipere, & providere ne damni quidquam inde sibi existat. Hoc nos dicimus naturæ ac gentium juri esse consentaneum, & non à nobis solum, sed etiam à Poloniæ Sueciæque Regibus factitatum in bellis, quæ cum Muscovitis gesseerunt. Verum ne nimis excurram, de his consulatur Grotius d. lib. III. de Iure bell. e. p. cap. 1. n. 5. & ib. in Notis fusè, & lib. III. cap. XVII. n. 3. Hoc tantum breviter addam: quod bello durante ita, ut dictum est, prohibetur, suspendit tantum ad tempus & quidem in certo loco, non tollit com-
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46 Ioh. Loccenii if he is our friend or ally, or if we know that his cause is the more just, would it not be permitted without breach of the alliance to support him, and to render him many other offices of friendship? Although a closer union and relationship may seem to suggest this; yet here too kings and princes, against whom aid is sent to the enemy, usually care more for what is advantageous to themselves and their own kingdom than for what is advantageous to the enemy and his friends, and they are accustomed to intercept such aid. Thus in the speech of the Queen of England to the Polish envoy, who on behalf of his king complained that the law of nations had been violated by the prohibition of trade with his kinsman the Spaniard, she replied, as Camden reports under the year 1597: You must know that the law of nations, so often used in your speech, allows, when war has arisen between kings, for one party to intercept auxiliaries or reinforcements sent to the other, and to take care that no harm come to itself from them. This we say is in accordance with the law of nature and of nations, and has been practiced not only by us, but also by the kings of Poland and Sweden in the wars which they waged with the Muscovites. But lest I wander too far, consult Grotius on these matters, book III, De Iure belli , chapter 1, no. 5, and there in the Notes at length, and book III, chapter XVII, no. 3. This much I shall briefly add: that during war, in the way just stated, it is prohibited, but only suspends for the time being, and indeed in a certain place; it does not abolish the com-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 47 commerciorum libertatem, quæ tota redit cessante bello. Alb. Gentilis lib. 1. de jur. belli.cap. XXI. Tolerent id mali ad tempus. Id nec est impediri commercium, ut neque quum nisi ad loca aliqua impeditur. Num verò, si privati mercatores advehant hosti commeatum aut pulverem tormentarium, id luet Respublica? de hac quæstione plura dicentur in lib. III. cap. 4. ß. 6. X. Quamvis mos vetus sit in occursu Regiarum navium vela demittere, de cujus antiquitate Lipsius lib. 1. Elect. c. XXIII. & tormentorum explosione, secundum loci consuetudinem naves tales ob vias salutare, tamen haud semper & per se in recognitionem dominii maris, sed honoris caussa plerumque fit, etiam illis in locis, ubi vel non alterutri vel neutri maris est dominium. Cujus rei singulare notavit exemplum Sleidanus lib. XXII. histor. De navibus interceptis, edito scripto Cæsariani ferunt, cum nihil minus quam bellum Cæsar exspectaret, ac suis ut essent pacati mandasset, Gallicum ducem Polinum in has incidisse, & quasi Reginam Scotiæ veherent, nunciasse illis, ut honoris caussa pro more antiquo atque recepto ponerent antennas, vela demitterent, eamque tormentorum tonitru salutarent. id cum fecissent, inermes fuisse per fraudem circum- venio,
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De Iure Maritimo, Book I, 47. The liberty of commerce, which returns in full when war ceases. Alb. Gentilis, book 1, De Jure Belli , ch. XXI. Let such evils be endured for a time. This is not to impede commerce, just as it is not impeded when it is hindered only in some places. But if private merchants bring supplies or gunpowder to the enemy, must the Commonwealth pay for that? More will be said on this question in book III, ch. 4, § 6. X. Although it is an old custom, on meeting royal ships, to strike the sails, of whose antiquity Lipsius, book 1, Elect. ch. XXIII, speaks, and, according to local custom, to salute such ships by the discharge of cannon as they pass, nevertheless this is not always, and of itself, an acknowledgment of dominion over the sea, but is usually done out of honor, even in those places where either one party or neither has dominion of the sea. A singular example of this was noted by Sleidanus, book XXII, Historia . Concerning intercepted ships, the published writing of the Caesarian party states that, when Caesar expected nothing less than war and had ordered his men to remain peaceful, the French commander Polinus happened upon them and, as though they were carrying the Queen of Scotland, announced to them that, out of respect and according to ancient and accepted custom, they should lower their masts, strike their sails, and salute her with the thunder of cannon. When they had done this, they were, unarmed, deceitfully surrounded and captured.
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48 Ioh. Loccenii venios & abductos. quid circa hanc rem anno MDCLVI. contigerit in occursu navis Suecicæ prætori e Regii tunc in Gal- ham Legati, Illustriss Comitis Magni de la Gardie, & Britannicæ, adhuc in recenti est memoria. Si de hac velorum demissione inter Reges convenire non satis possit, sub certo pacti modo definiri solet quod etiam factum est in pactis pacis Regum Sueciæ & Danie anno MDCLV. ante V. XIV. XV. Nec tamen illa velorum demulio na- vigandi libertatem jure gentium receptam minuit. CAP. V. De Angariis vel præstationibus navium. I. Angarias navium non præjudicare liber- tati navigandi & commercandi. II. Vndedicantur Angariæ. I I. Quæ sint angariæ navium. IV. Quo jure imponantur. V. Ab illis neminem immunem esse. VI. Caussa hujus oneris. VII. Pæna dolosè hîc agentis, recusantis aut retardantis. VIII. Fide & securitate publica munitos esse angarias navium præstantes. IX. Num
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48 John Loccenius captured and taken away. What occurred in this matter in the year 1656, in the encounter of the Swedish ship with the Royal courier then in the Gal- ham Ambassador, the most illustrious Count Magnus de la Gardie, and the British one, is still fresh in memory. If agreement cannot sufficiently be reached between kings on this lowering of the sails, it is usually defined by a certain form of pact, as was also done in the peace treaties of the kings of Sweden and Denmark in the year 1655, before V. XIV. XV. Nevertheless, that lowering of the sails does not diminish the freedom of navigation, recognized by the law of nations. CHAP. V. On angarias, or the requisitions of ships. I. That the requisitions of ships do not prejudice the freedom of sailing and trading. II. Whence angarias are so called. III. What the requisitions of ships are. IV. By what right they are imposed. V. That no one is exempt from them. VI. The cause of this burden. VII. The penalty for one who acts deceitfully here, or who refuses or delays. VIII. That those who perform requisitions of ships are protected by good faith and public security. IX. Whether
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 49 IX. Num ex damno talibus navibus dato Princeps loci teneatur. I. QVamvis Angariæ navium sint onus aliquod, quo servire naves tenentur, tamen & hoc non præjudicat libertati naturali commerciorum ac navigationis: cum solùm sit temporarium, & publicæ necessitatis, ut postea ostendetur; qua cessante cessat. II. Est autem Angariarum vox Persica, ut Herodotus lib. VIII. Hesychius & Suidas, & ex illis Brissonius lib. 1. de Regio Persarum principatu p.m. 147. notant. quæ vox, ex quo Persarum potentia Orientem invasit, ad Hebræos transiit, ut observat Grotius in cap. V. Matthæi, & ab illis ad Græcos. Eadem occurrit Matth. c. 5. v. 21. cap. 27. v. 31. & alibi. Allusio vocis Græcæ αγγω & Latinæ ango apprimè congruit, inquit Tabor in erudito Commentario Iuris metatorii p. 2. c. 3. n. 4. Congruere quoque videtur Suedicum άγγερ/ & Germ. άγγερ/ αγγιτ. Sed hæc aliorum curiositati relinquo. Aliàs αγγαρεια veteribus Græcis ipsa fuit δυλεία, servitium vel opera quæ ab invito præstatur; recentioribus, transitus & ejectio per viam publicam, ut observat Cl. Salmasius in lib. de Foenore trapezit. pag. 276. In pari sensu Iurisconsulti vocem an- gariæ.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 49 IX. Whether the ruler of the place is liable for damage caused to such ships. I. Although the angariæ of ships are a certain burden by which ships are bound to serve, nevertheless this does not prejudice the natural freedom of trade and navigation; since it is only temporary and arises from public necessity, as will be shown later; when that ceases, it also ceases. II. Now the word angariæ is Persian, as Herodotus in Book VIII, Hesychius, and Suidas note, and from them Brissonius in Book I, De Regio Persarum Principatu , p.m. 147. This word, since the power of the Persians invaded the East, passed to the Hebrews, as Grotius observes on Matthew chapter V, and from them to the Greeks. The same term occurs in Matthew ch. 5, v. 21, ch. 27, v. 31, and elsewhere. The similarity of the Greek word αγγω and the Latin ango is especially apt, says Tabor in his learned Commentary on the Ius Metatorium , p. 2, ch. 3, no. 4. It also seems to correspond to the Swedish άγγερ and the German άγγερ/ αγγιτ . But I leave these matters to the curiosity of others. Otherwise, among the ancient Greeks αγγαρεια itself meant δυλεία , service, or labor performed unwillingly; among later writers, passage and removal along a public road, as the distinguished Salmasius observes in his book De Foenore Trapezit. p. 276. In the same sense the jurists use the word angariæ.
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50 Ioh. Loccenii gariarum & angariari naves in l.4. 1. D. de privil. veteran. l.7. Cod. de Fabricens. acceperunt. quod etiam servire naves quidam dicebant. Inscriptio veteris lapidis apud Gruterum pag. DCXLII. licet alia in re: SUB. L. ARRUNTIO. STELLA. NAVIS HARENARIA. QVÆ. SERVIT. IN. AEMILIANIS. Sic nostri Suedi præstationem navium Tiena/ servire appellant, Germani & Belgæ pressen/ quasi premere aut exprimere. Sed de appellationibus satis. III. Angariæ navium sunt præstationes earum in transvehendo comitatu Regio vel liberæ Reip. aut militari instrumento, commeatu, armis, equis, exercitu, tempore expeditionis. IV. Has angarias imponere possunt navibus illi Principes & Respublicæ, quæ jura majestatis habent. Inter Regalia enim referuntur quoque navium præstationes in incun. quæ sint Regalia lib.2. Feud. tit. 56. Vnde ut aliorum regnorum ac rerumpub. ita & Suediæ moribus ad dictum onus adstringuntur naves: quo fine illis signum unius vel trium Coronarum, quod est Regni
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50 Ioh. Loccenii gariarum & angariari ships in l.4. 1. D. de privil. veteran. l.7. Cod. de Fabricens. accepted; which also to serve ships some said. An inscription on an ancient stone found in Gruter, p. DCXLII., though in another matter: SUB. L. ARRUNTIO. STELLA. NAVIS HARENARIA. QVÆ. SERVIT. IN. AEMILIANIS. Thus our Swedes call the burdening of ships Tiena/ to serve; the Germans and Belgians pressen/, as if to press or squeeze. But enough about the names. III. The angariae of ships are the obligations of them in transporting the royal retinue or of the free republic, or military equipment, provisions, arms, horses, troops, at the time of expedition. IV. These angariae can be imposed upon ships by those Princes and Republics which have the rights of majesty. For among the regal rights are also reckoned the obligations of ships in the beginnings; what kinds are royal rights, lib. 2. Feud. tit. 56. Hence, just as in other kingdoms and republics, so also by the customs of Sweden ships are bound to the said burden: for which purpose they have the sign of one or three Crowns, which is the sign of the Kingdom
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 51 Regni insigne, inscribi solet: quo obligantur ad serviendum coronæ in dicto casu. V. Ab hoc onere nullius navis immunis est. ideò nec diversorum nominum titulo, nec prærogativa personæ, nec privilegio dignitatis aut beneficii hîc se quisquam tueri, vel ab hoc onere excusare potest. privil. Nobil. Sued. art. 18. 19. privil. Holm. 25. l.4. §.1. D. de privil. veteran. l.18. §.24. D. de mun. & hon. l.10. 11. C. de SS. Eccl. l.1. 2. C. de nav. non excus. l. un. C. de naut. Tyb. tit. Cod. de Navicular. s. n. p. s. t. Ne ipsorum quidem pereginorum na- ves hic immunitatem habent l. ult. §.22. D. de mun. & hon. Sixtin. de Regal. lib. 2. c.13. n. 22. sed pro congrua mercede servire tenentur; nihil remorante, etiamsi mercatori sub certa poena promiserint alio merces devehere. qua de re plenius inf. lib. 3. cap. 5. §.7. VI. Caussa hujus oneris est necessitas & utilitas publica in expeditione Principali aut liberæ reipub. Omnes enim in commune, si necessitas exegerit, convenit utilitatibus pub. obedire l. Multi C. de nav. non excus. Et adversus jus pub. cessant omnia privilegia Tabor d. loc. n. 9. VII. Si quid in fraudem hujus juris attentatum fuerit, publicatione navis ple- ctitur l.10. C. de SS. Eccl. l.1. C. de nav. non C 2 ex 6.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 51 The ensign of the realm is usually inscribed: by which they are bound to serve the crown in the said case. V. No ship is exempt from this burden. Therefore neither under the title of different names, nor by the prerogative of person, nor by privilege of dignity or benefice can anyone here protect himself, or excuse himself from this burden. privil. Nobil. Sued. art. 18. 19. privil. Holm. 25. l.4. §.1. D. de privil. veteran. l.18. §.24. D. de mun. & hon. l.10. 11. C. de SS. Eccl. l.1. 2. C. de nav. non excus. l. un. C. de naut. Tyb. tit. Cod. de Navicular. s. n. p. s. t. Even the ships of foreigners themselves do not have immunity here l. ult. §.22. D. de mun. & hon. Sixtin. de Regal. lib. 2. c.13. n. 22. but they are obliged to serve for due wages; nothing delaying it, even if they have promised a merchant under a certain penalty to carry merchandise elsewhere. On this matter see more fully below, book 3. chapter 5. §.7. VI. The cause of this burden is necessity and the public utility in a royal expedition or in a free commonwealth. For all in common, if necessity demands it, must obey public utilities l. Multi C. de nav. non excus. And against public law all privileges cease Tabor d. loc. n. 9. VII. If anything shall have been attempted in fraud of this right, it is punished by the confiscation of the ship ple- ctitur l.10. C. de SS. Eccl. l.1. C. de nav. non C 2 ex 6.
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52 Ioh. Loccenii exc. Si verò naucleri negligentia remorentur obsequium aut alii impediant transvectionem, detineri possunt cum navibus donec pareant, aut ex merito luant, secundum poenam l. ult. C. de Fabricens. expressam, aut arbitrariam in diversis locis. Si quis recta navigatione contemta, litora devia sectatus, annonam pub. aut alia quæ deportanda suscepit, averterit & vendiderit, jure R. ultimo supplicio afficitur l. 3. 4. C. quæ res venire l. 7. C. de Navicular. Ei-dem poenæ obnoxios esse emtores talium rerum quidam volunt, alii verò, poena extraordinariâ affici. Peck. & Vinn. in d. l. 7. pag. 381. 382. 383. VIII. Qui angarias navium præstant, aut species annonarias reip. transferunt, fide publica & omni securitate venientes ac remeantes frui, nec concussiones aut aliquod genus incommodi perpeti debent; decem librarum auri multa his jure R. proposita, qui eos inquietare tentaverint l. 3. Cod. de Navicul. IX. Si naves in præstatione angariarum diripiantur à prædonibus vel hostibus, aut deteriores reddantur, num à Principe, cui istæ angariæ debentur, hoc damnum erit resarciendum? Non videtur: quod subditi non censeantur naves suas locasse Principi, sed obligationi ab ipsa lege sibi impositæ satis-
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52 Johannes Loccenius exc. But if, through the negligence of the shipmasters, compliance is delayed, or if others hinder the transportation, they may be detained together with their ships until they comply, or they may be made to pay according to their fault, according to the penalty expressly set out in l. ult. C. de Fabricens., or an arbitrary penalty in different places. If anyone, despising the direct course of navigation, follows devious shores and diverts and sells the public grain supply or other goods which he has undertaken to convey, he is by right punished with the ultimate penalty, l. 3. 4. C. quæ res venire l. 7. C. de Navicular. Some think that purchasers of such goods are liable to the same penalty; others, however, think they are to be punished extra ordinem. Peck. & Vinn. in d. l. 7. p. 381, 382, 383. VIII. Those who provide naval angariæ, or transport grain supplies of the state, ought to enjoy public faith and complete security in coming and returning, and must not suffer extortions or any kind of harm; a fine of ten pounds of gold is prescribed by Roman law against those who have attempted to disturb them, l. 3. Cod. de Navicul. IX. If ships, while performing angariæ, are plundered by pirates or enemies, or are rendered worse, whether this loss is to be made good by the Prince to whom these angariæ are owed? It does not seem so: because the subjects are not deemed to have let their ships to the Prince, but to have been sufficiently bound by the obligation imposed on them by the law itself.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 53 satisfecisse. Peck. in tit. Cod. de nav. non excus. p. m. 389. præterquam quòd nemo ordinariè ex alieno facto obligetur, sed suum cuique factum noceat l. 135. D. de reg. jur. Imò etiamsi locatio exterarum na- vum facta sit, tamen conductorem teneri negant: cum damnum prædonum vel hostium incursu datum casibus fortuitis annumeretur, nec à conductore præstetur, quia absque culpa ejus accidit l. 23. de R. I. Excipiendum tamen volunt, si onus non nautam sed universitatem respiciat; tunc æquum est per eam succurri Peck. d. loc. aut si Princeps ex singulari favore damnum ipsi refundere velit: aut nisi Princeps ipse vel per suos damnum intulerit, quia pro- prium factum intervenit, ad satisfactione in tenetur. Sixtin. de Regal 2, 13, 77 & seqq. latè. Qui verò per se in tales naucleros prædas egerunt, ordinaria raptorum aut piratarum poena deprehensi plectuntur les . Cod. de Navicular. CAP. VI. De jure Fluminum. I. Flumina publica & privata. Flumina pub. navigabilia inter Regalia referri, nec simpliciter posse illorum, qui superiorem recognoscunt, fieri. II. Vsum fluminum jure gentium communem C 3 esse
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 53 satisfied. Peck. in tit. Cod. de nav. non excus. p. m. 389. except that no one is ordinarily bound by another’s act, but each person’s own act should prejudice himself, l. 135. D. de reg. jur. Indeed, even if the chartering of foreign ships has been made, nevertheless they deny that the charterer is liable; since damage caused by the attack of pirates or enemies is counted among accidental events, and is not borne by the charterer, because it occurs without his fault, l. 23. de R. I. However, they wish an exception to be made if the burden concerns not the sailor but the whole community; then it is equitable that relief be given through it, Peck. d. loc. or if the Prince, out of special favor, wishes to reimburse the damage to him; or unless the Prince himself, or through his agents, inflicted the damage, because his own act intervenes, he is bound to make satisfaction. Sixtin. de Regal 2, 13, 77 & seqq. at length. But those who, on their own account, have committed such plundering against shipmasters are, when caught, punished with the ordinary penalty for robbers or pirates. Cod. de Navicular. CAP. VI. On the law of rivers. I. Public and private rivers. Public navigable rivers are to be classed among the regalia, and cannot simply become the property of those who acknowledge a superior. II. The use of rivers is by the law of nations common to all C 3 is
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54 Ioh. Loccenii esse, non obstante alterius dominio aut jurisdictione. III. Fluvialia incrementa quibus cedant num etiam vasallo. De inundatione ibid. IV. Num molendinum in flumine pub. ædificare liceat; num in privato, post alium. V. Tutorem non posse alienare molendina pupilli absque decreto judicis. VI. Vi fluminis in alienum fundum delata quomodo vindicanda sint. VII. Num damnum vi fluminis ex ruina ædium, aut in coloni fundo datum in æstimationem veniat. VIII. Si via aut fines vi fluminis consusi sint, quid juris. IX. Littorum usum communem esse. quatenus in illis ædificare liceat. X. In littore inventa num fiant occupantis. XI. V sum riparum esse publicum. quantum in illis facere liceat. XII. Ripatica quatenus ad Regalia referantur. I. SVperest, ut post maris jus de jure Flu- minum & quæ eis adhærent, tanquam cognata materia tbeviter agamus. Flumina vel sunt publica vel privata. Publica sunt perennia, vel quæ semper fluunt l.1. ß.2.3. l.3. D. de flum. etiam si aliqua æstate exaruerint d.l.1. ß.2. & quæ sunt communis usus. Privata, quæ sunt torrentia, & quæ solùm hyeme
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54. Ioh. Loccenii to belong, notwithstanding the ownership or jurisdiction of another. III. To whom fluvial accretions belong, and whether even to the vassal. Concerning inundation, ibid. IV. Whether it is lawful to build a mill in a public river; whether in a private one, after another. V. That a guardian cannot alienate the mills of a ward without the decree of a judge. VI. How things carried by the force of a river into another's land are to be vindicated. VII. Whether damage caused by the force of a river from the collapse of houses, or damage done on a tenant's land, is to be taken into account. VIII. If a road or boundaries have been obliterated by the force of a river, what the law is. IX. That the use of the shores is common; to what extent it is lawful to build on them. X. Whether things found on the shore become the property of the finder. XI. That the use of riverbanks is public; how much it is lawful to do on them. XII. To what extent rights over riverbanks are referred to the Regalia. I. It remains that, after the law of the sea, we should next deal with the law of Rivers and the things attached to them, as a cognate subject, briefly. Rivers are either public or private. Public are perennial, or those that always flow, l.1. ß.2.3. l.3. D. de flum. even if they have dried up in some summer, d.l.1. ß.2. and those that are of common use. Private are those that are torrential, and those that only in winter
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 55 hyeme fluunt, suntque privati usus. quo sensu Marcianus IC. dixit: Flumina penè omnia & portus publica sunt l. 4. ß. 1. D. de divis. rer. Flumina pub. navigabilia vel navigationi apta, inter Regalia hodie refe- runtur c. un. quæ sint Regalia. nec sunt eo- rum qui superiorem recognoscunt, nisi ex peculiari concessione & investitura Supe- rioris, vel consuetudine & præscriptione immemoriali, quæ vim legis habet, illis accesserint. Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 3, 31. Mev. in Ius Lub. 3, 4, 6. ß. 13. 14. seq. Generali verò Regalium facta mentione flumina concessa non consentur, nisi disertè & spe- ciatim eorum mentio fiat Sixtin. d. loc. n. 22. salvis tamen supremo magistratui reserva- tis, quæ à Majestate divelli nequeunt. in- ter quæ est jus vectigalis, quod in flumine exigi nequit, nisi à suprema potestate Or- dinumque consensu specialiter concessum sit, Mev. d. loc. n. 17. 18. Flumen tamen qua tale proprium est ejus intra cujus ter- ritorium fluit, vel ejus cujus in diti one est populus. Grot. de jur. bell. et pac. 2, 2, 12. II. Licet autem Princeps vel liber po- pulus dominium & jurisdictionem habeat in flumine publico quod intra ejus fines fluit, & fructus vectigalium, piscationum & aliorum redituum inde percipiat, omne- que impedimentum tollat; usum tamen flumi- C 4
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 55 in winter they flow, and are for private use. In this sense Marcianus, the jurist, said: “Almost all rivers and harbors are public” l. 4. §. 1. D. de divis. rer. Rivers that are public, navigable, or fit for navigation are today classed among the Regalia c. un. quæ sint Regalia. Nor do they belong to those who acknowledge a superior, unless they have been acquired by a special grant and investiture from the Superior, or by custom and immemorial prescription, which has the force of law. Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 3, 31. Mev. in Ius Lub. 3, 4, 6. §. 13. 14. seq. But when the Regalia are mentioned in general, rivers are not included unless they are expressly and specifically mentioned. Sixtin. d. loc. n. 22. However, those things reserved to the supreme magistrate are excepted, since they cannot be separated from Majesty. Among these is the right of toll, which cannot be levied on a river unless it has been specially granted by the supreme power and with the consent of the Estates. Mev. d. loc. n. 17. 18. Yet a river as such belongs to the person within whose territory it flows, or to the people whose subject it is. Grot. de jur. bell. et pac. 2, 2, 12. II. Although the Prince or free people have dominion and jurisdiction over a public river flowing within their borders, and derive the revenues from tolls, fishing, and other income therefrom, and remove every obstruction; nevertheless the use of the river- C 4
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56 Ioh. Loccenii fluminis & transitum, qui profit transeuntibus & non noceat dominii authoribus, denegare nequit: quippe qui jure humanæ societatis patere solet. Augustin. ad c. 20. Num. 1. un. ß. 1. D. ut in flum. pub. navig. lic. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 2, 13. Seneca lib. 4. de benefic. cap. 5. Flumina illa præbitura commerciis viam, vasto & navigabili cursu vadentia. Inde Flumen publicum esse dicitur activè & passive. Active ratione imperii in flumen, quod Principiaut libero populo competit. Passivè, ratione liberis usus, quod navigantibus in eo concessum est, modò sine aliorum injuria, & fluminis detrimento fiat. Graef. Iur. pub. 26, 1. III. Naturaliter insula in flumine nata & alveus exsiccatus aut derelictus ejus est cujus est flumen, sive patrimonii publici sive privatorum. Idem de alluvionibus statuendum, ut sint Principis aut populi, si flumen sit publicum. Princeps tamen aut liber populus proxima prædia possidentibus concedere potest, si agri eorum non alium finem ex ea parte quam naturalem, id est flumen ipsum habeant. Si Princeps vasallo cum definito in flumen imperio certi territorii agros dederit, salvo eo quod privatis competit, hîc vasallus idem jus in flumine habebit, quod Principis aut populi fuit. Cui verò flumen ipsum datum est, insu-
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56 Ioh. Loccenii the passage of a river, which benefits those passing through and does no injury to the lords of the property, cannot be denied; for by the law of human society it is usually open. Augustin. ad c. 20. Num. 1. un. ß. 1. D. ut in flum. pub. navig. lic. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 2, 13. Seneca lib. 4. de benefic. cap. 5. Those rivers that provide a way for commerce, flowing with a broad and navigable course. Hence a river is said to be public both actively and passively. Actively, in respect of authority over the river, which belongs to the Prince or the free people. Passively, in respect of free use, which is granted to those navigating in it, provided it be done without injury to others and without damage to the river. Graef. Iur. pub. 26, 1. III. By nature, an island born in a river and a dried-up or abandoned riverbed belong to the owner of the river, whether of the public patrimony or of private persons. The same must be said of alluvions, so that they belong to the Prince or the people, if the river be public. The Prince, however, or the free people can grant them to neighboring landowners, if their fields have no other use from that side than the natural one, that is, the river itself. If the Prince has given to a vassal, together with defined dominion in a river over a certain territory, lands, saving that which belongs to private persons, here the vassal will have the same right in the river that belonged to the Prince or the people. But to whom the river itself has been given, insu-
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Delure Maritimo Lib.1. 57 insulas sive limo aggestas, sive factas ex alveo, quem amnis circumluit, suas facit. Si neutrum horum in investitura sit expressum, mos regionis, aut longa præscriptio hîc locum habebit. Si non imperium in flumine, sed ager in feudum datus sit, al- luvio seudo comprehensa censebitur in agro arcifinio, pro ejus qualitate, Ager autem arcifinius dicitur, qui fines hostibus arcendis idoneos ac naturales habet, quales sunt flumina & montes. Grot. lib. 2. de jure bell. e.p.cap.8.ß.8.9.11.12.15. Inundatio verò naturaliter agri dominium non tollit, si sit temporaria: quia substantiam agri non mutat. Si verò sit perpetua & gravissima inundatio quæ mutata re contingat, præsumitur animus derelinquendi; nisi circumstantiæ boni viri arbitrio æstimandæ aliud suadeant. Idab.n.10. Lyklama lib. VII. Membr. ecl. 47. conf. quæ notavi in Synops. jur. Diss.5.ß.37.38. seqq Si flumen cuisum mutaverit, an simul imperii terminus mutetur; & quæ flumen adjecit, an eis cedant quibus adjecta sunt, de hac quæstione susè differentes vide Grotium lib. 2. de jur. b. e. p. cap.3.ß.16.17.18. & Heigium lib. 2. quæst. jur. cap.40. ut & de tota alluvionis ac insularum materia Aymum, Gryphiandrum & alios. IV. Trita quidem est quæstio, Num mo- C 5
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. 1. 57 Islands, whether piled up by silt or formed from the riverbed which the river washes around, are treated as belonging to him. If neither of these is expressed in the grant, the custom of the region, or long prescription, will have force here. If not dominion in the river, but land has been given in fee, the alluvion, if comprehended, shall be deemed included in the boundary land, according to its quality. But boundary land is called that which has natural and suitable limits for keeping off enemies, such as rivers and mountains. Grotius, lib. 2, de jure belli e.p., cap. 8, § 8, 9, 11, 12, 15. Flooding, however, does not naturally take away ownership of land, if it is temporary; because it does not change the substance of the land. But if it is perpetual and very severe flooding, caused by a changed condition, an intention to abandon is presumed, unless the circumstances, to be judged by the discretion of a good man, suggest otherwise. Idab. n. 10. Lyklama, lib. VII. Membr. ecl. 47. Compare what I noted in Synops. jur. Diss. 5, § 37, 38 seq. If a river has changed its course, whether the boundary of dominion changes at the same time; and whether what the river has added passes to those to whom it has been added, on this question see the different views in Grotius, lib. 2 de jur. b. e. p., cap. 3, § 16, 17, 18, and Heigius, lib. 2, quæst. jur. cap. 40, as well as, on the whole matter of alluvion and islands, Aymus, Gryphiandrus, and others. IV. The question is indeed a familiar one, whether mo- C 5
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58 Ioh. Loccenii lendinum in flumine publico absque Magistratus concessione ædificare liceat; attamen, quia de jure fluminum hîc sermo est, ex occasione eam paucis discutiemus. Constans autem est Iurisconsultorum assertio, tale quid non licere: ne per id usus fluminis impediatur aut deterior reddatur tota tit. Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. Verum in locis & aquis privatis hoc licet: cum hîc quisque jure suo utatur l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. Si non fiat in fraudem alterius, nec commodum naturale aquæ cum ejus injuria intercipiatur l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. prad. rust. & in jure Sued. c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. Num autem in privato flumine liceat exstruere molendinum, si ante quis in ejusdem fluvii alveo ædificarit, & vectigal ejus hoc modo fortè deminuatur? majoris est disquisitionis. Schneidevvinus ad tit. Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina hanc esse communem Dd. sententiam observat, hoc alicui licere, si faciat, sibi ut profit; etiamsi alteri noceat, per l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. Sed nonne hoc repugnat naturali æquitati? Sic enim sibi quisque prodesse debet, ne alii noceat l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & dictis loc. jur. Suetic. Verùm ad hoc reponunt, si non faciat in pravam æmulationem alterius, nec principaliter ut alii no-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii it is permitted to build in a public river without the concession of the magistrate; however, since here we are speaking of the law of rivers, we will discuss this briefly on the present occasion. But the assertion of the jurists is constant, that such a thing is not permitted: lest by it the use of the river be impeded or the whole thing be made worse tit. Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. But in private places and waters this is allowed: since here each person makes use of his own right l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. If it is not done to the fraud of another, nor the natural benefit of the water with injury to him be intercepted l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. prad. rust. & in jure Sued. c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. But whether in a private river it is permitted to build a mill, if someone previously built in the channel of the same river, and the toll from it is by this means perhaps diminished? is a matter of greater inquiry. Schneidevinus, in his commentary on the title Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina, notes this to be the common opinion of the doctors: that it is permitted to someone if he does it for his own profit, even if it harms another, according to l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. But does this not conflict with natural equity? For thus each person ought to benefit himself so as not to harm others l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & the cited passages of Swedish law. However, in reply to this they say, if he does it not from wrongful emulation of another, nor principally so that others may not-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 noceat, sed suam conditionem meliorem reddat, admitti posse. Et quamvis com- modum naturale aquæ non possit alteri au- ferri, tamen commodum concursus mo- lentium, quod est meræ facultatis & vo- luntatis eorum, auferri posse putant. Bona enim fortunæ omnibus patere ajunt. Cop- pen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limita ta- men, nihil tale jus ex privilegio vel consue- tudine jam sit præscriptum. Carp[on] Zov. In- rispr Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. Occasione priorum illud quoque hîc addemus, quamvis molendina vel alia bo- na pupilli, quæ aquarum periculis obnoxia sunt, tutorem absque decreto judicis ven- dere posse quidam velint; rectius tamen sta- tuitur, illud tutorem non posse. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. dejure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Res alienæ vi fluminis in agrum alicujus delatæ condici quidem possunt l. 4. ß. 2. D. de reb. cred. non tamen aliter tolli, quam si de præterito & futuro da- mno caveatur l. 5. ß. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. ß. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. Si pa hominis concurrat, ex lege damno potest agi arg. l. 29. ß. 2 ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. C 6 X. In
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 may be admitted, not indeed if it injures, but if it improves his condition. And although the natural advantage of water cannot be taken away from another, nevertheless the advantage of the concurrence of mills, which depends upon a mere faculty and will of their owners, is thought capable of being taken away. For they say that the goods of fortune are open to all. Coppen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Yet this is limited, so that no such right is now prescribed from privilege or custom. Carp[on] Zov. Inrispr Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. On the occasion of the foregoing we shall add this also here: although some would have it that mills or other property of a ward, which are exposed to the perils of waters, may be sold by the guardian without the decree of a judge, it is nevertheless more correctly held that the guardian cannot do this. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. lest perchance there be fraud against the minor. VI. Things belonging to another, carried by the force of a river into the field of someone, can indeed be claimed. l. 4. § 2. D. de reb. cred. They cannot, however, be taken away otherwise than if security be given for past and future damage. l. 5. § 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. § 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. If the fault of a person concur, action may be brought under the law for damages. arg. l. 29. § 2 ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. C 6 X. In
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58 Ioh. Loccenii lendinum in flumine publico absque Magistratus concessione ædificare liceat; attamen, quia de jure fluminum hîc sermo est, ex occasione eam paucis discutiemus. Constans autem est Iurisconsultorum assertio, tale quid non licere: ne per id usus fluminis impediatur aut deterior reddatur tota tit. Dig. ne qvid in flum. pub. Verum in locis & aquis privatis hoc licet: cum hîc quisque jure suo utatur l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. Si non fiat in fraudem alterius, nec commodum naturale aquæ cum ejus injuria intercipiatur l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in jure Sued. c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. Num autem in privato flumine liceat exstruere molendinum, si ante quis in ejusdem fluvii alveo ædificarit, & vectigal ejus hoc modo fortè deminuatur? majoris est disquisitionis. Schneidevvinus ad tit. Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina hanc esse communem Dd. sententiam observat, hoc alicui licere, si faciat, sibi ut prosit; etiamsi alteri noceat, per l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. Sed nonne hoc repugnat naturali æquitati? Sic enim sibi quisque prodesse debet, ne alii noceat l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & dictis loc. jur. Suetic. Verùm ad hoc reponunt, si non faciat in pravam æmulationem alterius, nec principaliter ut alii no-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii Whether it be lawful to build a mill in a public river without the permission of the Magistrate; however, since here the discussion concerns the law of rivers, we shall briefly consider it on occasion. The assertion of the jurists, however, is constant, that such a thing is not permitted: lest by it the use of the river be impeded or the whole be rendered worse see Dig. ne qvid in flum. pub. But in private places and waters this is allowed: since here each person uses his own right l. 24. § 12. de damn. inf. If it be not done in fraud of another, nor the natural advantage of the water be intercepted with injury to him l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in Swedish law c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. But whether in a private river it is lawful to build a mill, if someone has previously built in the channel of the same river, and the toll from it is thus perhaps diminished? is a matter of greater inquiry. Schneidewinus, in his note on Inst. de R. D. § Flumina, observes this to be the common opinion of the doctors, that this is lawful to someone, if he does it for his own benefit, even if it harms another, by l. 24. § ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. But does this not conflict with natural equity? For thus each man ought to benefit himself without harming others l. 1. § 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. and the cited places of Swedish law. But to this they reply, if he does it not in malicious emulation of another, nor principally so that others do no-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 noceat, sed suam conditionem meliorem reddat, admitti posse. Et quamvis com- modum naturale aquæ non possit alteri au- ferri, tamen commodum concursus mo- lentium, quod est meræ facultatis & vo- luntatis eorum, auferri posse putant. Bona enim fortunæ omnibus patere ajunt. Cop- pen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limita ta- men, nih tale jus ex privilegio vel consue- tudine jam sit præscriptum. Carp[on]ov. Iu- rispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. Occasione priorum illud quoque hîc addemus, quamvis molendina vel alia bo- na pupilli, quæ aquarum periculis obnoxia sunt, tutorem absque decreto judicis ven- dere posse quidam velint; rectius tamen sta- tuitur, illud tutorem non posse. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Res alienæ vi fluminis in agrum alicujus delatæ condici quidem possunt l. 4. ß. 2. D. de reb. cred. non tamen aliter tolli, quam si de præterito & futuro da- mno caveatur l. 5. ß. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. ß. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. Si autem cul- pa hominis concurrat, ex lege Aquilia de damno potest agi arg. l. 29. ß. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Scholam. Exam. lur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
Transcription: Translated (English)
De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 it may be admitted, not as causing harm, but as improving his condition. And although the natural benefit of water cannot be taken away from another, yet they think that the benefit of the concurrence of mills, which depends on mere faculty and will, can be taken away. For they say that the goods of fortune are open to all. Coppen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limit, however, whether such a right is already prescribed by privilege or custom. Carp[on]ov. Iurispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. lib. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. On the occasion of the preceding points we shall also add here that, although some wish that mills or other property of a ward, which is exposed to the dangers of waters, may be sold by a guardian without a decree of the judge, it is more rightly held that the guardian cannot do this. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. lest perhaps there be fraud against the minor. VI. Things belonging to another, carried by the force of a stream into the field of someone, may indeed be reclaimed. l. 4. ß. 2. D. de reb. cred. yet they are not otherwise to be taken away than if security is given for the damage both past and future. l. 5. ß. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. ß. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. But if the fault of a man is involved, an action for damage may be brought under the Lex Aquilia. arg. l. 29. ß. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Scholam. Exam. Iur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii lendinum in flumine publico absque Magistratus concessione ædificare liceat; attamen, quia de jure fluminum hîc sermo est, ex occasione eam paucis discutiemus. Constans autem est Iurisconsultorum assertio, tale quid non licere: ne per id usus fluminis impediatur aut deterior reddatur toto tit. Dig. ne qvid in flum. pub. Verum in locis & aquis privatis hoc licet: cum hîc quisque jure suo utatur l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. Si non fiat in fraudem alterius, nec commodum naturale aquæ cum ejus injuria intercipiatur l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in jure Sued. c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. Num autem in privato flumine liceat exstruere molendinum, si ante quis in ejusdem fluvii alveo ædificarit, & vectigal ejus hoc modo fortè deminuatur? majoris est disquisitionis. Schneidevvinus ad tit. Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina hanc esse communem Dd. sententiam observat, hoc alicui licere, si faciat, sibi ut profit; etiamsi alteri noceat, per l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. Sed nonne hoc repugnat naturali æquitati? Sic enim sibi quisque prodesse debet, ne alii noceat l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & dictis loc. jur. Suetic. Verùm ad hoc reponunt, si non faciat in pravam æmulationem alterius, nec principaliter ut alii no-
Transcription: Translated (English)
58 Ioannes Loccenius whether it is permitted to build a mill in a public river without the magistrate’s consent; nevertheless, because the discussion here concerns the law of rivers, we shall briefly examine it on this occasion. The assertion of the jurists is constant, that such a thing is not permitted: lest thereby the use of the river be impeded or made worse in the whole title Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. But in private places and waters this is allowed: since here each person makes use of his own right l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. if it is not done to the fraud of another, nor the natural advantage of the water be intercepted with injury to him l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in Swedish law c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. But whether in a private river it is permitted to construct a mill, if someone previously has built in the bed of the same river, and the revenue from it is perhaps thereby diminished? is a matter of greater inquiry. Schneidevinus, on the title Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina, notes this to be the common opinion of the doctors, that it is permitted to someone, if he does it to his own profit; even though it harms another, by l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. But does this not conflict with natural equity? For thus each person should profit for himself, so as not to harm others l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. and the cited places of Swedish law. But to this they reply, if he does not act in malicious rivalry against another, nor principally so that others no-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 noceat, sed suam conditionem meliorem reddat, admitti posse. Et quamvis com- modum naturale aquæ non possit alteri au- ferri, tamen commodum concursus mo- lentium, quod est meræ facultatis & vo- luntatis eorum, auferri posse putant. Bona enim fortunæ omnibus patere ajunt. Cop- pen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limita ta- men, nisi tale jus ex privilegio vel consue- tudine jam sit præscriptum. Carp[on] Zov. In- rispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. Occasione priorum illud quoque hîc addemus, quamvis molendina vel alia bo- na pupilli, quæ aquarum periculis obnoxia sunt, tutorem absque decreto judicis ven- dere posse quidam velint; rectius tamen sta- tuitur, illud tutorem non posse. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Res alienæ vi fluminis in agrum alicujus delatæ condici quidem possunt l. 4. §. 2. D. de reb. cred. non tamen aliter tolli, quam si de præterito & futuro da- mno caveatur l. 5. §. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. §. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. Si autem cul- pa hominis concurrat, ex lege Aquilia de damno potest agi arg. l. 29. §. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. Iur. p. m. 397. C 6 VII. Dam-
Transcription: Translated (English)
De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 may be admitted, not so that it harms, but that it improves his condition. And although the natural benefit of water cannot be taken away from another, yet they think that the benefit of the concourse of mills, which is merely a matter of faculty and will on their part, can be taken away. For they say that the goods of fortune are open to all. Coppen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. However, there is a limitation, unless such a right has already been prescribed by privilege or custom. Carp[on] Zov. Inrispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. On the occasion of the foregoing matters we shall add this also here: although some wish that mills or other goods of minors, which are exposed to the dangers of waters, may be sold by a guardian without decree of the judge, yet it is more correctly laid down that the guardian cannot do this. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. lest perhaps there be fraud to the injury of the minor. VI. Things belonging to another, carried by the force of a river into the land of someone, may indeed be claimed, l. 4. §. 2. D. de reb. cred. but not otherwise taken away than if security be given for past and future damage, l. 5. §. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. §. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. But if the fault of a man be involved, an action may be brought under the Lex Aquilia for damage, arg. l. 29. §. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. Iur. p. m. 397. C 6 VII. Dam-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii lendinum in flumine publico absque Magistratus concessione ædificare liceat; attamen, quia de jure fluminum hîc sermo est, ex occasione eam paucis discutiemus. Constans autem est Iurisconsultorum assertiorale quid non licere: ne per id usus fluminis impediatur aut deterior reddatur toto tit. Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. Verum in locis & aquis privatis hoc licet: cum hîc quisque jure suo utatur l.24. §.12. de damn. inf. Si non fiat in fraudem alterius, nec commodum naturale aquæ cum ejus injuria intercipiatur l.6.7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l.17. D. de serv. prad. rust. & in jure Sued. c.33.34. Bygn. L.L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. Num autem in privato flumine liceat exstruere molendinum, si ante quis in ejusdem fluvii alveo ædificarit, & vectigal ejus hoc modo fortè deminuatur? majoris est disquisitionis. Schneidevvinus ad tit. Inst. de R. D. §. Flumina hanc esse communem Dd. sententiam observat, hoc alicui licere, si faciat, sibi ut profit; etiamsi alteri noceat, per l.24. §. ult. l.25. D. de damn. inf. Sed nonne hoc repugnat naturali æquitati? Sic enim sibi quisque prodesse debet, ne alii noceat l.1. §.11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & dictis loc. jur. Suetic. Verùm ad hoc reponunt, si non faciat in pravam æmulationem alterius, nec principaliter ut alii no-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii Whether it is permitted to build a mill in a public river without the permission of the magistrate; however, because here the question concerns the law of rivers, we shall discuss it briefly on this occasion. It is, however, the constant assertion of the jurists that this is not permitted: lest by it the use of the river be impeded or made worse, throughout the title Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. But in private places and waters this is allowed: since here each man uses his own right l.24. §.12. de damn. inf. If it is not done to the fraud of another, nor the natural benefit of the water is intercepted with injury to him l.6.7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l.17. D. de serv. prad. rust. & in Swedish law c.33.34. Bygn. L.L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. But whether in a private river it is permitted to construct a mill, if someone before had built in the bed of the same river, and the toll from it might in this way perhaps be diminished, is a matter for greater inquiry. Schneidevvinus, in his notes on the title Inst. de R. D. §. Flumina, observes that this is the common opinion of the jurists, that this is permitted to a person, if he does it for his own advantage; even if it harms another, by l.24. §. ult. l.25. D. de damn. inf. But does this not conflict with natural equity? For in this way everyone ought to benefit himself, so as not to harm others l.1. §.11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. and the cited places of Swedish law. But to this they reply, if he does it not out of wrongful emulation of another, nor principally so that others may not
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 noceat, sed suam conditionem meliorem reddat, admitti posse. Et quamvis com- modum naturale aquæ non possit alteri au- ferri, tamen commodum concursus mo- lentium, quod est meræ facultatis & vo- luntatis eorum, auferri posse putant. Bona enim fortunæ omnibus patere ajunt. Cop- pen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limita ta- men, nisi tale jus ex privilegio vel consue- tudine jam sit præscriptum. Carp[on] Zov. In- rispr. for. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. Occasione priorum illud quoque hîc addemus, quamvis molendina vel alia bo- na pupilli, quæ aquarum periculis obnoxia sunt, tutorem absque decreto judicis ven- dere posse quidam velint; rectius tamen sta- tuitur, illud tutorem non posse. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. dejure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Res alienæ vi fluminis in agrum alicujus delatæ condici quidem possunt l. 4. ß. 2. D. de reb. cred. non tamen aliter tolli, quam si de præterito & futuro da- mno caveatur l. 5. ß. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. ß. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. Si autem cul- pa hominis concurrat, ex lege Aquilia de damno potest agi arg. l. 29. ß. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. lur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 59 It can be admitted, not indeed if it injures, but if it makes his condition better. And although the natural advantage of water cannot be taken away from another, yet they think that the advantage of the concurrence of millers, which is merely a matter of their own ability and will, can be taken away. For they say that the goods of fortune are open to all. Coppen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. However, this is limited, unless such a right has already been prescribed by privilege or custom. Carp[on] Zov. Inrispr. for. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. In connection with what has gone before, we shall also add this here: although some wish that mills or other property of a ward, which are exposed to the dangers of waters, may be sold by a guardian without the decree of a judge, it is nevertheless more correctly held that the guardian cannot do this. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Things belonging to another, carried by the force of a river into someone’s field, can indeed be claimed back, l. 4. §. 2. D. de reb. cred.; yet they are not otherwise to be taken away unless security is given for past and future damage, l. 5. §. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. §. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. But if a person’s fault is involved, an action may be brought under the Lex Aquilia for damage, arg. l. 29. §. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. Jur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii lendinum in flumine publico absque Magistratus concessione ædificare liceat; attamen, quia de jure fluminum hîc sermo est, ex occasione eam paucis discutiemus. Constans autem est Iurisconsultorum assertio, tale quid non licere: ne per id usus fluminis impediatur aut deterior reddatur tota tit. Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. Verum in locis & aquis privatis hoc licet: cum hîc quisque jure suo utatur l. 24. ß. 12. de damn. inf. Si non fiat in fraudem alterius, nec commodum naturale aquæ cum ejus injuria intercipiatur l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in jure Sued. c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. Num autem in privato flumine liceat exstruere molendinum, si ante quis in ejusdem fluvii alveo ædificarit, & vectigal ejus hoc modo fortè deminuatur? majoris est disquisitionis. Schneidevvinus ad tit. Inst. de R. D. ß. Flumina hanc esse communem Dd. sententiam observat, hoc alicui licere, si faciat, sibi ut profit; etiamsi alteri noceat, per l. 24. ß. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. Sed nonne hoc repugnat naturali æquitati? Sic enim sibi quisque prodesse debet, ne alii noceat l. 1. ß. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & dictis loc. jur. Suetic. Verùm ad hoc reponunt, si non faciat in pravam æmulationem alterius, nec principaliter ut alii no-
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58 Ioh. Loccenii whether it is permitted to build a mill in a public river without the Magistrate’s permission; however, since here the discussion concerns the law of rivers, we shall briefly examine it on this occasion. The assertion of the jurists is, however, constant, that such a thing is not allowed: lest by it the use of the river be impeded or the whole be made worse, tit. Dig. ne quid in flum. pub. But in private places and waters this is permitted: since here each person uses his own right l. 24. §. 12. de damn. inf. if it is not done to the fraud of another, nor the natural benefit of the water is intercepted to his injury l. 6. 7. Cod. de servit. & aq. l. 17. D. de serv. præd. rust. & in Swedish law c. 33. 34. Bygn. L. L. privil. Nobil. art. 28. But whether it is allowed in a private river to construct a mill, if someone had previously built in the bed of the same river, and his toll or revenue in this way perhaps be diminished, is a matter of greater inquiry. Schneidevvinus, on the title Inst. de R. D. §. Flumina, notes that this is the common opinion of the doctors, that this is permitted to someone, if he does it for his own advantage, even if it harms another, according to l. 24. §. ult. l. 25. D. de damn. inf. But does this not conflict with natural equity? For thus each person ought to benefit himself, so as not to harm others l. 1. §. 11. D. de aq. & aq. pl. & the said places of Swedish law. Yet to this they reply, if he does it not in wrongful emulation of another, nor principally so that others should no-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib.1. 59 noceat, sed suam conditionem meliorem reddat, admitti posse. Et quamvis com- modum naturale aquæ non possit alteri au- ferri, tamen commodum concursus mo- lentium, quod est meræ facultatis & vo- luntatis eorum, auferri posse putant. Bona enim fortunæ omnibus patere ajunt. Cop- pen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. Limita ta- men, nisi tale jus ex privilegio vel consue- tudine jam sit præscriptum. Carp[on] Zov. In- rispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. libr. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seqq. V. Occasione priorum illud quoque hîc addemus, quamvis molendina vel alia bo- na pupilli, quæ aquarum periculis obnoxia sunt, tutorem absque decreto judicis ven- dere posse quidam velint; rectius tamen sta- tuitur, illud tutorem non posse. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. ne fortè sit fraudi pusillo. VI. Res alienæ vi fluminis in agrum alicujus delatæ condici quidem possunt l. 4. ß. 2. D. de reb. cred. non tamen aliter tolli, quam si de præterito & futuro da- mno caveatur l. 5. ß. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. ß. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. Si autem cul- pa hominis concurrat, ex lege Aquilia de damno potest agi arg. l. 29. ß. 2. & seqq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. Iur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. 1. 59 may not cause harm, but may improve his own condition, it is thought that it can be admitted. And although the natural advantage of water cannot be taken away from another, nevertheless they think that the advantage of the gathering of millers, which is a matter of mere capacity and their own will, can be taken away. For, they say, the goods of fortune are open to all. Coppen. Obs. Pract. LXVIII. n. 15. However, with this limitation, unless such a right has already been prescribed by privilege or custom. Carp[on] Zov. Inrispr. Ior. 2, 4, 9, 11. Sixtin. de Regal. lib. 2. cap. 3. n. 65 & seq. V. On the occasion of the preceding matters we shall also add here that, although some wish that mills or other property of a ward, which are exposed to the dangers of water, may be sold by a guardian without a decree of the judge, nevertheless it is more correctly established that the guardian cannot do so. arg. l. 13. ff. de reb. eor. Forster. de succession. 7, 21, 34. & arg. c. 10. de jure præd. LL. Sued. civit. lest perhaps there be fraud against the minor. VI. Things belonging to another, carried by the force of a river into the land of someone, can indeed be claimed l. 4. §. 2. D. de reb. cred. but cannot be removed otherwise than if security is given for past and future loss l. 5. §. 4. D. ad exhib. l. 9. §. 3. de damn. inf. l. 8. de inc. r n. But if the fault of a person concurs, an action for damage may be brought under the Lex Aquilia arg. l. 29. §. 2. & seq. D. ad leg. Aquil. Schotan. Exam. Iur. p. m. 307. C 6 VII. Dam-
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60 Ioh. Locceni VII. Damnum vicino ex ruina ædium vi fluminis aut maris datum, velut fatale, non præstatur. Quod enim ædificium tam firmum est, ut fluminis, maris aut tempe- statis vim sustinere possit? l. 24. ß.4. D. de damn. inf. aliud verò dicendum, si ædificii vitio id acciderit d. l. Sed & ob damnum coloni fundo per incursum fluminis dato remissio pensionis fit l. 1 ß.2. D. loc. cond. quia hoc quoque per vim majorem ac- cidit. VIII. Si via publica (quæ etiam flumine interveniente constitui potest, si aut vado transiri possit, aut pontem habeat l. 3 ß. D. de serv. præd. rust.) fluminis impetu sit amis- sa, vicinus proximus viam præstare debet l. 14. ß.1. D. quemadm. serv. amitt. sed im- pensâ publicâ, ut Glossæ volunt; licet hoc non semper observetur. Quod autem viam pub. negant intercedere alluvioni, rationem naturalem nullam habet; nisi ager pri- vatus sit, qui viam debeat. Grot. d. libr. 2, 8, 17. Si verò irruptione fluminis fines agri confusi sint, & dominus agri usurparit lo- ca, in quibus jus non habet, magistratus loci alieno eum abstinere, & domino suum restitui, terminosque per mensorem decla- rari jubebit l. 8. D. fin. reg. IX. Velut maris, ita littorum usus pu- blicus est, per quæ ad mare fit accessus; li- cct
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60 Ioh. Locceni VII. Damage to a neighbor caused by the collapse of buildings through the force of a river or the sea is not compensated, as if it were a fate of nature. For what building is so firm that it can withstand the force of a river, the sea, or a storm? l. 24. ß.4. D. de damn. inf. But a different view is to be taken if this happened through a defect in the building. d. l. And also, for damage to a tenant caused to the land by the inrush of a river, remission of the rent is made l. 1 ß.2. D. loc. cond. because this also occurs through a greater force. VIII. If a public road, which may also be established where a river intervenes, if it can either be crossed at a ford or has a bridge l. 3 ß. D. de serv. præd. rust., has been lost through the violence of a river, the nearest neighbor must provide the road l. 14. ß.1. D. quemadm. serv. amitt., but at public expense, as the Glosses wish; although this is not always observed. But that they deny that a public road is interrupted by alluvion has no natural basis; unless it is private land that must provide the road. Grot. d. libr. 2, 8, 17. But if, by the breaking in of a river, the boundaries of a field have been confused, and the owner of the field has appropriated places in which he has no right, the magistrate of the place will order him to be kept off from what belongs to another, and what is his own to be restored to the owner, and the boundaries to be marked out by a surveyor l. 8. D. fin. reg. IX. As with the sea, so too the use of the shores is public, by which access to the sea is made; although
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 61 ret fortè sint in imperio populi aut Princi- pis l. 3. D. ne quid in loco pub. Grot. de juro bell. & pac. 2, 3. 9. Liberum est ergo ibi ex- onerare merces, explicare & siccare retia §. 5. Inst. de rer. div. l. 5. 6. D. cod. l. 14 D. de adq. rer. dom. Et quod in littore quis ædifi- cat, licet in suo non ædificet, jure tamen gentium suum facit. Si quis igitur velit ibi ædificante[m] prohibere, nullo jure prohibet, neq[ue] opus novum nuntiare nisi exuna cau- sa potest, si forte damni infecti velit sibi ca- veri l. 1. §. 18. D. de novi op nunc. In eo præ- sertim littore jure gentium ædificare licet, quod in nullius populi dominium perve- nit arg. d. l. 14. D. de adq. rer. dom. Vt au- tem in littore publico vel quod populi est, & in parte maris littori vicina extruere li- ceat permanens ædificium, id à Magistratu loci impetrare oportet l. 50. de adq. rer. dom. Nullo verò jure quis prohiberi potest ca- sam in littore ponere, in quam se recipiat §. 5. Inst. de R. D. aliaque, quæ non prohibita sunt, facere; nisi cum alterius damno con- juncta sint, aut usum publicum impediant, aut deteriorem stationem & navigationem faciant: quod non debent l. 2. l. 4. D. ne quid in loco pub. l. 1. §. 12. 15. 19. 21. D. de flum. art. 28. privil. Nobil. Suet. Hinc cautè le- gati AEneæ ad Latinum VII. AEneid. Littusque rogamus INNOCVVM. X. In
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 61 perhaps they are in the dominion of the people or of the Prince, l. 3. D. ne quid in loco pub. Grot. de juro bell. & pac. 2, 3, 9. It is therefore free there to unload merchandise, spread out and dry nets §. 5. Inst. de rer. div. l. 5. 6. D. cod. l. 14 D. de adq. rer. dom. And whatever one builds on the shore, although he does not build on what is his own, he nonetheless makes his own by the law of nations. If therefore anyone wishes there to prevent a builder, he prevents him by no law, nor need he give notice of a new work unless for one cause he can, if perhaps he wishes to provide for his damage lest it be done to him, l. 1. §. 18. D. de novi op nunc. Especially on that shore it is permitted by the law of nations to build, because it has come under the dominion of no people, arg. d. l. 14. D. de adq. rer. dom. But for a permanent building to be erected on a public shore, or one that is the people’s, and in the part of the sea near the shore, it must be obtained from the magistrate of the place, l. 50. de adq. rer. dom. But by no law can anyone be prevented from placing a hut on the shore, into which he may withdraw §. 5. Inst. de R. D. and from doing other things which are not prohibited; unless they are joined with another’s damage, or impede public use, or make anchorage and navigation worse: which they ought not to do, l. 2. l. 4. D. ne quid in loco pub. l. 1. §. 12. 15. 19. 21. D. de flum. art. 28. privil. Nobil. Suet. Hence the prudent words of the envoys of Aeneas to Latinus, VII. Aeneid. And the shore we ask for is INNOCENT. X. In
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62 Ioh. Loccenii X. In littore inventa, velut lapilli & gemmæ, jure naturali quidem inventoris fiunt: quia sunt communia, ut littus, & nullius, & in medio posita omnibus. ß.18. Inst. de rer. div. l.3. D. eod. l.1. ß.1. de adq: vel. amit. poss. Attamen illud hodie vix in usu est: dum hoc quoque jus vi imperii in litora eorum dicioni subjecta à Principibus restringitur. nisi ubi consuetudo benignius cum inventoribus agit, nec omnia fisco tribuit. Heig. ad d. ß.10. Inst. SchultZ in Synops. Inst. tit. de R. D. lit.r. Collectio tamen succini & gemmarum in littore certo modo interdicta subditis non efficit totius juris gentium eversionem, nec abrogat omnem fluminum aut littorum usum. Heig. lib.2. quæst. jur. cap.40. n.148. XI. Vsus riparum etiam jure gentium publicus est, ut fluminis, ad quod patet aditus per ripam. Vnde naves ad eas appellere, funes arboribus ibi natis religare, onus aliquod in his reponere, retia siccare, pecus per ripam ad flumen appellere licet. ß.4. Inst. de R.D.l.5. D. eod. l.1. ß.ult. D. ut in flum. pub. n. Qui verò in ripâ ædificat, suum non facit l.15. D. de adq rer. dom. quia in alieno fundo ædificat; quum riparum proprietas sit eorum, quorum prædiis hærent d. ß.4. Inst. & l.5. D. de R.D. Munire quidem ripam aut reficere littus licet ad-
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62 Ioh. Loccenii X. Things found on the shore, such as pebbles and gems, by natural law become the property of the finder: because they are common, like the shore itself, and belong to no one, and are placed in a public place for all. §.18. Inst. de rer. div. l.3. D. eod. l.1. §.1. de adq: vel. amit. poss. Yet this is hardly in use today: since even this right is restrained by the force of imperial authority on shores subject to the dominion of Princes, unless custom deals more benignly with finders and does not assign everything to the fisc. Heig. ad d. §.10. Inst. SchultZ in Synops. Inst. tit. de R. D. lit.r. However, the gathering of amber and gems on the shore, prohibited to subjects in a certain way, does not overturn the whole law of nations, nor abolish all use of rivers or shores. Heig. lib.2. quæst. jur. cap.40. n.148. XI. The use of riverbanks is also public by the law of nations, as is that of a river, to which access is made possible by the bank. Hence ships may come up to them, ropes may be tied to trees growing there, some cargo may be placed on them, nets may be dried, and cattle may be driven along the bank to the river. §.4. Inst. de R.D.l.5. D. eod. l.1. §.ult. D. ut in flum. pub. n. Whoever builds on a bank does not make it his own, l.15. D. de adq rer. dom. because he builds on another's land; for the ownership of riverbanks belongs to those whose estates adjoin them, d. §.4. Inst. & l.5. D. de R.D. Certainly it is permitted to fortify a bank or repair a shore to-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 63 adversus rapidi amnis impetum; ita tamen, ut hoc navigationi non sit impedimento aut fraudi l. un. ß 2. D. de rip. mun. l. 2. ß. 8. ne quid in loco pub. toto tit. D de flum. & tit. Ne quid in flum. pub. l. I. C. de alluv. ß. 1. & 7. Inst. de interd. XII. Ripatica quoque inter Regalia referri constat ex c. un. Quæ sine Regal. contemplatione juris, proventuum & commodorum ex ripis. de quibus prolixè Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 5, 8. & seqq. & Graef Iur. pub. cap. 36. n. 11. CAP. VII. De Naufragio. I. An jure littoris res naufragæ ad dominum litoris pertineant. II. Naufragium ex casu fortuito est fatale, & extra culpam. III. Quomodo culpa naucleri naufragium accidat. IV. Quomodo culpa veflorum in navi. ubi & de commodato. V. Quomodo culpa duetoris. VI. Ejecta navi & naufraga bona non confestim nostra esse desinere, nec usu capi posse. VII. Negatur, omni jure gentium ad littoris domi-
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On Maritime Law, Book I. 63 against the force of a rapid river; yet in such a way that this may not be an impediment to navigation or a fraud, l. un. § 2. D. de rip. mun. l. 2. §. 8. ne quid in loco pub. toto tit. D de flum. & tit. Ne quid in flum. pub. l. I. C. de alluv. §. 1. & 7. Inst. de interd. XII. It is also established that ripatic dues are to be reckoned among the regalia, from c. un. Quæ sine Regal. contemplatione juris, proventuum & commodorum from the banks. On these matters at length, Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 5, 8. & seqq. & Graef. Iur. pub. cap. 36. n. 11. CHAP. VII. On Shipwreck. I. Whether, by right of the shore, shipwrecked goods belong to the owner of the shore. II. Shipwreck by accidental chance is fatal, and without fault. III. How, through the fault of the shipmaster, shipwreck happens. IV. How by the fault of the crew on board a ship. and concerning commodatum. V. How by the fault of the leader. VI. That goods cast ashore and wrecked do not immediately cease to be ours, nor can they be acquired by use. VII. It is denied that, by all the law of nations, to the shore the domi-
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64 Ioh. Loccenui dominum pertinere bona naufraga vel ejecta. VIII. Gentium aliquot enumeratio, quæ bona nausraga Fisco applicuerunt. IX. Probatur illud injussè factum esse & fieri. nec inde juris dominium stabiliri, aut justo titulo defendi posse. X. Derelicta tamen bona naufraga ex majori parte jure Fisco inferri. XI. An possessor teneatur Principi ex missa annona, quæ naufragio perit. XII. De hominibus naufragio pereuntibus. XIII. De his succedendi modo & probatione. XIV. Num, si navis legata naufragio perierit, inde fructus legatario debeantur. XV. De deposito naufragii causa. XVI. De poena rapii aut suppressi naufragii. XVII. Naufragorum calamitati quomodo subveniendum. I. T materiam de jure littorum pertexamus, in disceptationem porrò vocandum erit, num rectè statuant, qui jure littoris aut regali res naufragas ad dominum qui littori imperat, pertinere volunt. Sed hoc ab humanitate alienum esse mox ostendemus, si de caussis naufragii quædam præmiserimus; & quatenus inde authores obligentur. II. Nau-
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64 Ioh. Loccenui goods from shipwreck or cast ashore belonging to the lord. VIII. An enumeration of certain peoples who have applied shipwrecked goods to the Fisc. IX. It is proved that this was done and is done without orders, and that no ownership in law is established thereby, nor can it be defended by a just title. X. Nevertheless, abandoned shipwrecked goods are for the greater part by law brought into the Fisc. XI. Whether the possessor is bound to the prince for grain sent out, which perished in the shipwreck. XII. On persons perishing in shipwreck. XIII. On the manner of succession to them and proof thereof. XIV. Whether, if a ship be bequeathed and perish in shipwreck, the fruits therefrom are due to the legatee. XV. On a deposit made on account of shipwreck. XVI. On the penalty for plundering or concealing shipwrecked goods. XVII. How the calamity of the shipwrecked is to be relieved. I. Since we are now to treat the matter of the law of the shores, it will further have to be discussed whether they judge rightly who wish that, by the law of the shore or by royal right, shipwrecked goods belong to the lord who commands the shore. But that this is contrary to humanity we shall soon show, if we first set forth certain causes of shipwreck, and the extent to which those responsible are thereby bound. II. Nau-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib I. 65 II. Naufragium vel casu fortuito & vi ma ore, vel culpa nautarum, vectorem aut ductoris accidere potest. Si casu fortuito, nemo inde tenetur l.3.ß.1. D. Naut. caup. st. l.1.ß.4. D. de obl. & act. l.26.ß.6. D. mand. quia vis major providentiam & industriam humanam superat, nisi culpa calum præcesserit. III. Si nauclerus ex convento aut debito navem armamentis bene instructam non habuerit: si non constituto tempore, aut, si alieno tempore navigarit, vel neglexerit commodè navigandi tempus l.16.ß.1,l. 36.ß.1. D. de rei vendic. si minus idoneis hominibus navem commiserit d.l.16.ß.1.si per intula loca sciens navigaverit: si per imperitiam vel incuriam navem vadis aut scopulis illiserit; nisi lumine piscatorum deceptus in vada inciderit, portum esse credens l.10. D. de inc. ruin. uanfr. si navem plus justo onerarit l. un. C. ne quid on. pub. i. & ibi Gothofr. & quocunque modo occasionem naufragio culpâ suâ dederit, inde tenetur, vid. cap. 9.ß.1. L L. Suetic. de jure nautic. & cap. 14. eod. Qui enim occasionem præstat, damnum fecisse videtur c. 10. 11. leg. Nautic. Rhodior. l.30.ß 3. D. ad leg. Aquil. Benev. Straccha p.3. de Naut. 1. vid. & inf. lib. III. cap. 8.ß.8. & seqq. IV. Qui in navi vehuntur & domini mer-
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On Maritime Law, Book I. 65 II. Shipwreck may happen by chance, by force major, or through the fault of the sailors, to the passenger or the helmsman. If by chance, no one is liable therefor l.3. §1. D. Naut. caup. st. l.1. §4. D. de obl. & act. l.26. §6. D. mand. because force majeure surpasses human foresight & industry, unless fault precedes the calamity. III. If the shipmaster, contrary to agreement or duty, has not had the ship well equipped with fittings; if he has not sailed at the appointed time, or, if he has sailed at another time, or has neglected the proper time for sailing l.16. §1, l. 36. §1. D. de rei vendic. if he has entrusted the ship to less suitable men d.l.16. §1. if he has knowingly sailed through dangerous places; if through incompetence or negligence he has driven the ship onto shoals or rocks; unless, deceived by the light of fishermen, he has run aground on a shoal, thinking it a harbor l.10. D. de inc. ruin. uanfr. if he has loaded the ship beyond what is just l. un. C. ne quid on. pub. i. & there Gothofr. & in whatever way he has given occasion for a shipwreck through his own fault, he is liable for it, see cap. 9. §1. L L. Suetic. de jure nautic. & cap. 14. eod. For he who provides the occasion is seen to have caused the damage c. 10. 11. leg. Nautic. Rhodior. l.30. §3. D. ad leg. Aquil. Benev. Straccha p.3. de Naut. 1. see also below book III, chap. 8. §8. & following. IV. Those who are carried in the ship & the owners mer-
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66 Ioh. Loccenii mercium quoque sunt in culpa, si vel soli vel unà cum nauclero in horum quæ jam dicta sunt quippiam consenserint. Aut si secum peregrè vel per mare portarint, & naufragio amiserint ea, quorum usus illis domi concessus erat; eorum æstimationem præstabunt: quia hîc culpa utentium casum præcessit ß. 2. Inst. quib. mod. re contrah. oblig. l. I. ß. 4. D. de obl. & act. Aliàs in commodato naufragium, velut damnum fatale, non præstatur l. 18. D. commod. nisi, cum posset res commodatas salvas facere, suas prætulerit l. 5. ß. 4. D. eod. Sed hac de re plura inf. lib. 3. c. 2. ß. 6. & 7. V. Si ductor navis se obligarit ad navim absq; omni damno in portu deducendam, ille verò navem impegerit vado aut latenti saxo, inde tenebitur art. 38. jur. maritim. Wisbyens. Iure Sued. etiam ad poenam capitis hoc factum aliquando extendi potest, pro gravitate damni dati, atque si dolo hoc fecerit c. 14. de jure naut. Ipse tamen nauclerus non erit extra culpam, si sciverit ductorem minus esse idoneum, & nihilominus navem ducendam ei commiserit. l. utiq; ß. culpa D. de rei vindic. Ex procellæ tamen periculo ductor non tenetur d. c. 14. quia hic est casus fortuitus, ab eo non præstandus l. 23. de R. I. nisi ad vim majorem aut tempestatis periculum se expressè aut genera-
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66 Ioh. Loccenii goods are also at fault, if they either alone or together with the shipmaster have agreed to any of the things now said. Or if they have carried them with them on a journey by land or by sea, and have lost them in shipwreck, when their use at home had been permitted to them; they shall make good their value: because here the fault of those using them precedes the accident. §. 2. Inst. quib. mod. re contrah. oblig. l. I. §. 4. D. de obl. & act. Otherwise in a loan for use, shipwreck, as a fatal loss, is not made good l. 18. D. commod. unless, when he could have saved the things loaned for use, he preferred his own l. 5. §. 4. D. eod. But on this matter more below, book 3, c. 2, §§. 6 & 7. V. If the master of the ship has bound himself to bring the ship into port without any damage, but he should drive the ship onto a shoal or hidden rock, he will then be liable, art. 38. jur. maritim. Wisbyens. In Swedish law also this act can sometimes be extended to the penalty of death, according to the gravity of the damage caused, and as if he had done this by fraud c. 14. de jure naut. Yet the shipmaster himself will not be without fault if he knew the master to be less fit, and nevertheless entrusted the ship to him to be guided. l. utiq; §. culpa D. de rei vindic. However, because of the danger of a storm the helmsman is not liable, d. c. 14., since this is a fortuitous event, not to be borne by him l. 23. de R. I., unless against the force majeure or the danger of a storm he had expressly or generally
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 67 neraliter obligarit. arg. l.9. ß.2. D. loc. cond. l.78. ß.3. D. de contr. emt. VI. In ipso naufragio vel naufragii me- tu levandæ navis gratia ejecta, non statim nostra esse desinunt: quia non sunt in de- relictio sed in deperdito l.44. D. de adq rer. dom l.13. l.21. ß.1. D. de adq vel amitt. poss. nec enim eo animo ejiciuntur, quasi quis ea habere nolit, sed quo magis cum ipsa navi maris periculum effugiat ß.48. Inst. de rer. div. l.9. ß.8. D. de adq. rer. dom. Arist.3. Eth.1. vid. & inf. lib.2. cap.7. ß.5 de jur. marit. atque si suspicatus fuerit, in quem locum ejecta sint, postea requirat. velut qui onere pressus, in viam rem abjicit, ut mox reversurus eandem auferat l.8. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Itaque res naufragæ aut ejectæ non possunt usucapi l.21. ß.1.2. D. de adq. vel amitt. poss. l.7. D. pro derelicto; nisi derelinquendi animo expulsæ vel jactæ sint, quod sciat jaciens perituras l.43. ß.1.1. D. de furt. Conjectura etiam de animo de- relinquendi capi potest, ut notat Zasius ad l.21. de adq. vel amitt. possess. li quis merces compositas in sacculum religet, & expositas in mare projiciat. quod tamen magis ex eventu rerum derelictarum quam pro- posito deperdendi judicandum erit: quum in ejiciente res navis levandæ causa semper præsumatur animus retinendi, quamdiu su-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 67 generally bound. arg. l. 9. §. 2. D. loc. cond. l. 78. §. 3. D. de contr. emt. VI. In the very shipwreck, or when, out of fear of shipwreck, goods are thrown overboard for the sake of lightening the ship, they do not at once cease to be ours: because they are not things abandoned, but things lost l. 44. D. de adq. rer. dom. l. 13. l. 21. §. 1. D. de adq. vel amitt. poss. nor indeed are they thrown out with the intention that one does not wish to have them, but so that one may more readily escape with the ship itself from the danger of the sea §. 48. Inst. de rer. div. l. 9. §. 8. D. de adq. rer. dom. Arist. 3. Eth. 1. vid. & inf. lib. 2. cap. 7. §. 5 de jur. marit. and even if one should have suspected in what place they were thrown out, one may later look for them again; just as one who, being weighed down by a load, throws a thing into the road, intending shortly to return and take it away again l. 8. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Therefore shipwrecked goods or goods thrown overboard cannot be acquired by usucapion l. 21. §. 1. 2. D. de adq. vel amitt. poss. l. 7. D. pro derelicto; unless they were expelled or cast out with the intention of abandoning them, which is known by the thrower to be perishing l. 43. §. 1. 1. D. de furt. Inference of the intention of abandonment may also be drawn, as Zasius notes ad l. 21. de adq. vel amitt. possess., if someone ties up merchandise packed in a bag and throws it into the sea. Yet this must be judged more from the event of things abandoned than from a plan of destroying them: since in one who throws things out for the sake of lightening the ship, the intention to retain them is always presumed, so long as su-
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Ioh. Loccenii 68 superest spes recuperandi. conferatur Zoesius in Pandect. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu n. 10. 11. 12. VII. Quod autem apud Bodinum lib 1. de Repub. c. ult. Legato Cæsaris coram Henrico 2. Francorum Rege conquerenti, duas naves ad littus ejectas, & ab Iordane Vrsino captas esse easque restitui postulanti respondit Annas Mommorancius magister equitum: Ea quæ ad littus fuissent ejecta, gentium omnium jure ad Principes qui littoribus imperant pertinere, in eo magis argumento quam vero servivit. Verum quidem est, aliquot gentium instituto sic observatum fuisse, non autem ab omni- bus, ut mox §. 8. & inf. §. 10. probabitur. VIII. Nonnulli quidem eruditi ex l. 9. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu colligunt, publicanos apud Rhodios olim legem seu morem bona naufraga fisco applicandi habuisse; eosdem in partem illorum venisse pro custodia vel cura eorum; qua de re fulius inf. h. cap. §. 10. Quidam etiam huc referunt illud Syriani Rhetoris: Nóμ & πεναν- Φράγια Πῶν Πελωνῶν εἰναι; & illud Curii Fortunatiani: Naufragia ad publicanos pertinere. Hunc morem, ut bona naufragà publicanis aut fisco vendicarentur, etiam viguisse apud Gallos, Anglos, Neapolitanos, Siculos & alios nonnullos, notant Bodinus
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Ioh. Loccenii 68 there remains hope of recovery. Compare Zoesius in Pandect. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu n. 10. 11. 12. VII. But what Bodin says in lib. 1. de Repub. c. ult., that when the ambassador of Caesar, complaining before Henry II, King of the French, that two ships had been cast up on the shore and captured by Iordanus Ursinus, and demanding that they be restored, Anna Mommorancius, master of the horse, replied: “Those things which had been cast up on the shore belong by the law of all nations to the princes who rule the shores,” served there more as argument than as truth. It is indeed true that, according to the custom of some peoples, this was so observed, but not by all, as will soon be proved in §. 8. and below §. 10. VIII. Some learned men indeed infer from l. 9. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu that the publicani among the Rhodians once had a law or custom of applying wrecked goods to the fisc; and that they themselves received a share of them for their custody or care; concerning which see fuller treatment below in this chapter §. 10. Some also refer here that saying of the Syrian rhetorician: Nóμ & πεναν- Φράγια Πῶν Πελωνῶν εἰναι; and that of Curtius Fortunatianus: “Naufragia ad publicanos pertinere.” That this custom, namely that wrecked goods were claimed by the publicani or the fisc, also prevailed among the French, English, Neapolitans, Sicilians, and certain others, Bodin notes
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 69 nus lib. 1. de rep. c. ult. Selden. lib. 1. Mar. claus. c. 25. & alii. IX. Cæterum, ut bona miserorum naufragorum in Fiscum trahantur, licet à non- nullis gentibus more receptum fuerit, ab ipsa tamen humanitate & æquitate natu- rali abhorret. Nonne enim inhumanum & iniquum est, calamitosos absque suo facto re sua privari: & fiscum ex alieno dispendio suum quærere compendium? unde qui cum humanitate aliquod com- mercium habent, hunc morem ut planè barbarum atque injustum passim damnant. vid. Grot. de jure belli O pac. 2,7,1. Imò contra Christianam prorsus charitatem est, cujus afflicta fortuna nostrâ ope esset erigenda, eum ulterius deprimere & ad incitas redigere. vide Amesium apud Dumb. in casib. consc. 1049. Sed quidquid hîc inhumanum injustumque habetur, de privatis proprio instinctu absque authoritate pub. res naufragas rapientibus accipiendum esse Principum adulatores aiunt, non de ipsis Principibus ac liberis Rebuspub. quibus bona naufragio ejecta & in littus eorum expulsa, quasi ipsa natura attribuente, in sinum ipsorum & fiscum cadant. id quoque esse partem domini maris: id jure portus & littoris Fisco deberi. Verùm non est, quod hinc maris dominium stabilire velint: cum
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 69 nus lib. 1. de rep. c. ult. Selden. lib. 1. Mar. claus. c. 25. & others. IX. But that the goods of miserable shipwrecked persons should be drawn into the treasury, although this has been the custom received by some nations, yet it is contrary to humanity itself and natural equity. For is it not inhuman and unjust that the unfortunate, without any fault of their own, should be deprived of their property, and that the treasury should seek its own advantage from another’s loss? Hence those who have any commerce with humanity condemn this custom everywhere as plainly barbarous and unjust. See Grotius, de Jure Belli O Pac. 2,7,1. Nay, it is altogether contrary to Christian charity, which ought to raise up by our help one whose afflicted fortune needs to be lifted, not further to cast him down and bring him to utter ruin. See Amesius apud Dumb. in casib. consc. 1049. But whatever here is held to be inhuman and unjust is said by the flatterers of princes to be understood of private persons snatching shipwrecked goods of their own impulse without public authority, not of princes themselves and free commonwealths, to which goods cast up by shipwreck and driven ashore on their coasts, as though nature itself assigning them, fall into their bosom and treasury. That also is said to be part of the dominion of the sea; that by right of port and shore it is due to the treasury. But there is no reason that they should wish to establish sovereignty of the sea from this; since
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70 Ioh. Loccenii cum sit injustus adquirendi ritulus, occupare quod aliorum est, non sponte, sed necessitate ejectum. Seldenus lib. 1. Mar. claus. c. 18 p m. 148. Divisio illa rerum è pelago extractarum, simpliciter considerata, non magis asserit dominium ullum in ipso mari, quam pradæ cujuscunque maritimæ ab hostibus ereptæ decima. Aut si quis dominium in littus vel mare sibi arroget, portusque isthic habeat, non tamen majorem habet facultatem res naufragas capiendi & sibi retinendi, quam quilibet alius. Dominium enim littoris, portus, aut maris nulli dat jus alicui suum absque justa causa auferendi. Non concupiscere alienum, & suum cuique tribuere est generalis lex Dei & naturæ, quæ omnes obligat. Si vero bona naufraga in littus ejiciantur, hoc est singulare Dei & naturæ Deo famulantis beneficium, non permittentium ea spolium maris aut aliorum fieri, sed rep petentibus dominis ut solatium amissorum adversæque fortunæ cedere. Bodinus lib. 1. de Repub. c. ult. Barbarum, inquit, et antiquis inusitatum est, ut cujus opes ac fortunæ naufragio miserè perierint, et quem nostris opibus sublevare debeamus, ejus reliquias quas ad littus ejectas bona fide restitui oportebat, turpiter diripi patiamur. Sic tamen vivitur, ut qui portus habent (loquitur de quorundam populorum, non omnium,
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70 Ioh. Loccenii since the title of acquiring is unjust, to seize what belongs to others, not voluntarily, but because it has been cast out by necessity. Selden, lib. 1. Mar. claus. c. 18 p. m. 148. That division of things drawn from the sea, considered simply, no more asserts any dominion in the sea itself than does a tenth of any maritime spoil snatched from enemies. Or if someone claims dominion over the shore or the sea for himself, and has a harbor there, he nevertheless has no greater power to seize shipwrecked goods and keep them for himself than anyone else. For dominion over the shore, harbor, or sea gives no one the right to take away what belongs to another without just cause. Not to covet what belongs to another, and to give to each his own, is the general law of God and nature, which binds all. But if shipwrecked goods are thrown onto the shore, this is a singular benefit of God and of nature serving God, not permitting them to become the spoil of the sea or of others, but rep returning them to the owners who seek them, as a comfort for what has been lost and for adversity. Bodin, lib. 1. de Repub. c. ult. “It is barbarous,” he says, “and uncustomary among the ancients, that when a man’s wealth and fortune have miserably perished in shipwreck, and whom we ought to assist with our means, we should allow the remains, which ought in good faith to have been restored when cast upon the shore, to be shamefully plundered. Yet so it is lived, that those who have harbors” (he speaks of certain peoples, not of all,
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De lure Maritimo Lib I. 71 omnium, moribus) eam crudelitatem tum in cives tum peregrinos exsequantur. Ius quæris? error jus facit. at si non peccatur errore, sed scientia, scelus est, quod erroris specie prætenditur. Grotius hic memoria lapsus videtur, quando in Notis ad lib. 2. de jure bell. e. p. c.7. ß.1. ait: Quid in mentem venit Bodino, ut talia defenderet? Non defendit hæc Bodinus, ut videmus, sed acriter carpit. Nec est, quod patroni hujus moris se tueantur illo Iuvenalis: Res fisci est, quodcunque natat; hoc enim habet authores Palphurium & Armillatum, delatores & assentatores Domitiani; velut postea in cap. de jure piscandi fusius probabo. Quanto justius Imp[er]p[er] Hadrianus & Antoninu decernunt, licere unicuique naufragium suum impune colligere l.7.l.ult.D. de inc. ruin. naufr. Et Antoninus in l.2. C. de Naufrag Si quando, inquit, naufragio navis expulsa fuerit ad littus, vel si quando aliquam terram attigerit, ad dominos pertineat; Fiscus meus sese non interponat. QVOD ENIM IVS HABET FISCVS IN ALIENA CALAMITATE, VT DE RETAM LVCTVOSA COMPENDIVM SECTETVR? Ex hoc æquitatis fundamento Rex Poloniæ Sigismundus anno MDXCVIII. decidit, ut res ex naufragio re-
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. I. 71 of all men, by their customs, they carry out that cruelty both toward citizens and toward foreigners. Do you ask for the law? error makes law. But if one errs not through mistake, but knowingly, it is a crime that is advanced under the guise of error. Grotius here seems to have slipped in memory, when in the Notes to book 2 of De Jure Belli, c. 7, §1, he says: What came into Bodin’s mind, that he should defend such things? Bodin does not defend these things, as we see, but attacks them sharply. Nor is there any reason for the defenders of this custom to shield themselves with Juvenal: The fisc’s property is whatever floats; for this has as its authorities Palphurius and Armillatus, informers and sycophants of Domitian; as I shall later prove more fully in the chapter on the right of fishing. How much more justly do the emperors Hadrian and Antoninus decree that it is lawful for anyone to collect his own wreckage without penalty, l. 7, l. ult. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. And Antoninus in l. 2. C. de Naufrag. If ever, he says, a ship driven by shipwreck shall have been cast upon the shore, or if ever it shall have touched any land, it shall belong to its owners; let my fisc not interfere. WHAT RIGHT, INDEED, HAS THE FISC IN ANOTHER’S CALAMITY, THAT IT SHOULD SEEK A PROFIT FROM MISFORTUNE? From this foundation of equity King Sigismund of Poland in the year 1598 decided that goods from shipwreck should be-
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Ioh. Læccenii 72 receptæ domino illarum restituerentur, ut notat Lipskÿ Obs. Pract. t.2. c.44. n.2. & Gail lib.1. Obs. Pract. c.18. n.6. testatur, mandata sine clausula contra consuetudines de bonis naufragis jure littoris Fisco addicendis in Camera Imperiali non semel decreta fuisse. X. Derelicta tamen bona naufraga, quorum certo tempore non apparet dominus, pro majori parte Fisco inferre, minorem partem inventori pro cura & custodia eorum assignare, æquitati & juri gentium consentaneum videtur. Ius Suedorum hac de re in c.36. de Furt. LL. prov. & c.14. eod. LL. municip. ita constituit: Inventor rei naufragæ in littus ejectæ publicè significabit rem inventam, cujus dominus si intra annum & diem compareat, & rem suam legitimis indiciis probet, duas partes recipiet dominus, unam retinebit inventor, (sed dimidium inventæ rei infundo maris, c.15. d. LL.) Possunt etiam quidam privilegio legi eximi, ut suum recipiant pro æqua asservationis mercede. quod olim hic Lubecensibus & Stralsundensibus indultum est; & Suedis apud eosdem. Si intra annum & diem non advenerit ad suum vendicandum, duas partes capiet Fiscus Regius, tertiam inventor. quod ab æquitatis normâ non videtur alie- num,
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Ioh. Læccenii 72 returned to the lord to whom they belonged, as Lipsius notes, Obs. Pract. t.2. c.44. n.2. & Gail lib.1. Obs. Pract. c.18. n.6. testifies, that mandates without a clause, against the customs by which goods from shipwreck are to be assigned by right of shore to the Treasury, have not once been decreed in the Imperial Chamber. X. Nevertheless, abandoned shipwrecked goods, whose owner does not appear within a certain time, it seems consonant with equity and the law of nations that for the greater part they should be assigned to the Treasury, and the smaller part to the finder for the care and custody of them. The law of the Swedes in this matter, in c.36. de Furt. LL. prov. & c.14. eod. LL. municip. establishes thus: The finder of a shipwrecked object cast upon the shore shall publicly announce the found item, whose owner if within a year and a day he appears, and proves his property by lawful evidence, the owner shall receive two parts, the finder shall retain one, (but half of the found item in the sea-bottom, c.15. d. LL.) Some may also be exempted from the law by privilege, so that they receive their own property back for an equitable fee for keeping it safe. This was formerly granted here to the people of Lübeck and Stralsund; and to the Swedes among the same people. If within a year and a day he does not come to claim what is his own, the Royal Treasury shall take two parts, the finder a third. which does not seem alien to the norm of equity,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib I. 73 num. Qui enim in tempore indicat rem inventam, eo ipso testatum facit, se lucrandi aut retinendi animum non habere, nec in aliena calamitate compendium affectare, sed vero domino suum bona fide restituturum, qui si intra præscriptum tempus, quo commodè potuit, se non sistat & suum repetat, pro derelicto habere præsumitur arg. l.43. §.5.11. D. de furt. l.1.2. D. pro derelicto: & sic tanquam bonum vacans quod possessorem non habet, aut qui jus suum omisit, Fisco cedit; portioque attribuitur inventori, ut industriæ & curæ merces. Quod jus etiam aliarum gentium moribus receptum est. Speciatum de bonis naufragis ita constitutum est in jure lutico lib.3. c.61.63. Scanico lib.8. c.3. in jure maritimo Danico art.49.73. in jure Norvegico c.26. de jure mercandi. In pactis pacis inter Magnum Regem Suediæ & V Valdemarum Regem Daniæ anno Christi MCCCCXLIII. In aliquo regnorum nostrorum seu dominis passi naufragia res amissas liberè, absque impeditione quorumlibet, recolligant & recuperent, quamdiu non pro derelicto habuerint res amissas. Simile quid in jure Prussico lib.4. tit.19. art.5. §.4. In Edicto Belgar um anno 1447. publicato: impacto inter Henricum V I I. Regem Angliæ & Philippum Archiducem Austriæ anno 1495. D into.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 73 num. He who in due time declares a thing found, by that very act testifies that he has no intent of gain or retention, nor to seek profit from another’s calamity, but rather to restore it bona fide to the owner; and if the owner, within the prescribed time, when he conveniently could, does not appear and reclaim his property, it is presumed to be abandoned arg. l. 43. §. 5. 11. D. de furt. l. 1. 2. D. pro derelicto: and thus, as vacant property which has no possessor, or one who has renounced his right, it falls to the Fiscus; and a portion is assigned to the finder, as the reward of industry and care. This right has also been received by the customs of other nations. Specifically, concerning wrecked goods it has been so established in the Lutheran law, lib. 3. c. 61. 63. the Scanian, lib. 8. c. 3. in the Danish maritime law art. 49. 73. in the Norwegian law c. 26. de jure mercandi. In the treaties of peace between the Great King of Sweden and King Valdemar of Denmark, in the year of Christ MCCCCXLIII: “In any of our kingdoms, or on the lands of those who have suffered shipwreck, let them freely collect and recover the lost goods, without hindrance from anyone, so long as they have not treated the lost goods as abandoned.” Something similar is found in the Prussian law lib. 4. tit. 19. art. 5. §. 4. In the Belgian Edict, published in the year 1447. The treaty between Henry VII, King of England, and Philip, Archduke of Austria, in the year 1495. D into.
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74 Ioh. Loccenii inito. Quamvis etiam eruditi quidam velint, ut sup. ß.8. tangebatur, lege Rhodiorum simpliciter bona naufraga Fisco fuisse addicta, idque colligant ex l. A[utem] D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, tamen olim in lege Rhodia constitutum fuisse verisimilius est, ut domino intra præfixum à lege tempus non apparente, præter partes Fisco debitas, partem sibi sumerent pro naufragorum bonorum cura & custodia publicani. Ita quidem Grotius in Florum sparsione ad Ius Iustiniani legem Rhodiam explicat: Solebant, inquit, publicani bona quorum non apparebat dominus, in custodiam suam sumere, & pro ea custodia partem sibi aliquam vindicare. Ea pars quæ esset, definitum erat lege Rhodia navali, quæ pro ure gentium in illo mari vigebat: sicut apud Galliam leges Oleronis: apud omnes Thransrhenanos populos leges Wisbyenses. lac. Gothofredus in erudito Commentario ad l. Deprecatio IX. leg. Rhod. de Iactu cap. XI. hac de re ita judicat: Potuisse lege Rhodia insulanis aut maritimis civitatibus id competere, ut in partem aliquam naufragii venirent, vel ob sumtus in faces ignesque flagrantes pro securitate navigantium, vel ob operam in colligendis & asservandis naufragiis impensam, vel loco portorii aut vectigalis pro mari à la- tronibus purgato: ut jam non esset prædæ spe-
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74 of Ioh. Loccenius begun. Although certain learned men also wish, as was touched on above in § 8, that by the Rhodian law the wrecked goods simply belonged to the Fiscus, and they infer this from l. A[utem] D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, nevertheless it is more likely that in the old Rhodian law it was established that, if the owner did not appear within the time fixed by the law, then, besides the shares due to the Fiscus, the publicans would take a share for themselves for the care and custody of the wrecked goods. Thus indeed Grotius, in his exposition of Florus on the Law of Justinian, explains the Rhodian law: “The publicans,” he says, “used to take into their custody goods whose owner did not appear, and for that custody claim for themselves some share. What that share was, was determined by the Rhodian naval law, which prevailed by the law of nations in that sea: just as among Gaul the laws of Oleron; among all the peoples across the Rhine, the laws of Wisby.” Jac. Gothofredus, in his learned Commentary on l. Deprecatio IX. leg. Rhod. de Iactu cap. XI, judges thus on this matter: It could have been granted by the Rhodian law to island or maritime cities that they should receive some part of the wreck, either because of the expenses for torches and blazing fires for the safety of sailors, or because of the labor spent in collecting and preserving wrecked goods, or in place of a toll or tax for the sea cleared of pirates: so that it would no longer be a matter of plun-
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De lure Maritimo Lib. I. 75 species ex mente Eudæmonis, sed remuneratio quædam impensarum & operæ, adeo- que mos seu lex maris ex instituto Rhodiorum. Sed ne modum excederet, Antoni- num temperari voluisse secundum Impera- ratorum constitutiones. Idem Gothofredus quomodo dicta Lex nona ad leg. Rhod. de jactu sit emendanda & legenda, c. 7. lau- dati Commentarii ostendit. Ejusdem legis emendationem aggressi sunt alii viri do- ctrina eximii Grotius, Petitus, Seldenus & nuper Salmasius: quorum observatio- nes compendio contraxit Cl. Vinnius ad dictam Legem pag. 276. & quæ emenda- tiones menti legis ipsi convenientiores vi- debantur, observavit, uti apud ipsum le- gere est. Ei quoque non sit verisimile, lege Rhodia naufragia omnia statim & sine di- latione fisco vindicata fuisse, quo nihil pos- sit excogitari crudelius. cum contra lex Rhodia, ut Legum nauticarum vetustissi- ma, tantopere commendetur ob æquita- tem à Strabone & aliis authoribus. XI. Si subditi vel alii certam quantita- tem mercium aut annonæ Principi mittere jussi sint, missæque naufragio absque pos- sessorum culpa perierint, ad alia horum vice mittenda minimè obligantur l.4. C de Naufrag. O ibi Peck. quia semel munere suo functisunt, & de naufragio casu facto non D 2
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 75 a species according to Eudaemon’s view, but a certain remuneration for expenses and labor, and thus a usage or law of the sea established by the Rhodians. But lest it should exceed due measure, Antoninus is said to have wished it to be moderated according to the constitutions of the Emperors. The same Gothofredus shows, in chapter 7 of the aforesaid Commentary, how the said Ninth Law on the Rhodian Law concerning jettison is to be corrected and read. Other men of outstanding learning, Grotius, Petit, Selden, and more recently Salmasius, undertook the emendation of that law; Vinnius, in brief, has reduced their observations in his note on the said Law, p. 276, and has noted which emendations seemed more in agreement with the intention of the law itself, as one may read in him. Nor does it seem likely to him that, under the Rhodian law, all shipwrecks were at once and without delay claimed for the fisc, since nothing more cruel could be devised; whereas, on the contrary, the Rhodian law, as the oldest of the nautical laws, is so greatly praised by Strabo and other authors for its equity. XI. If subjects or others are ordered to send a certain quantity of merchandise or grain to the Prince, and what is sent perishes by shipwreck without fault of the owners, they are by no means obliged to send other goods in place of these, l. 4. C de Naufrag. O there Peck, because they have once performed their duty, and since the shipwreck occurred by accident, not D 2
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76 Ioh. Loccenii non tenentur; nisi culpa eorum interverenerit. Ita judicatum à supremo Senatu Mechlinensi, tum & Brabantino, testatur Christinæus decis. 66. n.2. & Vinn. ad d.1. pag. 401. XII. Si quis funem anchorarium data præciderit opera, quo alligata erat navis, quæ vi maris aut fluctuum abrepta in naufragii malum inciderit, & aliquis hominum naufragio perierit, damni dati & capitis poenæ obnoxius erit author, secundum jus Sueticum cap. 5. & 9. de jure nautic. quia causam mortis præbuit. l.1 5. D. ad leg. Corn. de Sicar. XIII. Si conjuges & liberi naufragio, casu quodam fatali perierint, & incertum sit, quis eorum prior extinctus sit, viri hæredes viro, uxoris uxori succedent in bona c.6. Iur. Suet. de hæred. Masculi tamen, ut fortiores, diutius vixisse præsumuntur. Conf. l.9 l.16. 17. 18 l 22. 23. de reb. dub. l.17. §.7. ad Sc. Treb. l. 26. de pact. dotal. Carp Zov. Iur. for. 3, 17, 10. Finkeltaus Obs. Pract. 52. XIV. Quod naufragio perit, hæredi non legatorio perit, si modò legatarius culpa careat l.30. ad leg. Falcid. Si tamen hæres certum corpus legatario dare obligatus sit, nec fecerit, quo minus ibi, ubi id esset, traderet, si id postea sine culpa hæredis casu
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76 Ioah. Loccenius are not liable, unless their own fault has intervened. Thus it was judged by the Supreme Senate of Mechelen, and also by that of Brabant, as Christinæus testifies, decis. 66. n. 2. & Vinn. ad d. 1. pag. 401. XII. If someone, by an act done on purpose, cuts the anchor-rope by which a ship was fastened, and the ship, carried off by the force of the sea or the waves, falls into shipwreck, and any person perishes in the wreck, the author will be liable to an action for damage and to capital punishment, according to the Swedish law, chap. 5 and 9, de jure nautic. because he provided the cause of death. l. 1 5. D. ad leg. Corn. de Sicar. XIII. If spouses and children perish in a shipwreck, by some fatal accident, and it is uncertain which of them died first, the heirs of the husband will succeed to the husband, the heirs of the wife to the wife, in the goods. c. 6. Iur. Suet. de hæred. Males, however, as being stronger, are presumed to have lived longer. Conf. l. 9 l. 16. 17. 18 l. 22. 23. de reb. dub. l. 17. §. 7. ad Sc. Treb. l. 26. de pact. dotal. Carp. Zov. Iur. for. 3, 17, 10. Finkeltaus Obs. Pract. 52. XIV. What perishes in a shipwreck passes not to the legatee, if only the legatee is free from fault l. 30. ad leg. Falcid. If, however, the heir is bound to give a certain thing to the legatee, and does not do so, so that it is not handed over there where it was to be, if afterward without fault of the heir case
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 77 casu quondam perierit, deterior sit legatarii conditio l. 26. ß. 1. de legat. 1. Si verò navis ususfructus al. cui legatus sit, quæ postea nausfragio deperdita sit, nihilominus præteriti temporis fructus à die legati debebuntur legatario arg. l. 12. ß. 1. D. de usu fr. & arg. l. 62. D. derei vindic. Sed si sub conditione si navis salva redierit, ususfructus legatus sit, existente conditione exister, deficiente conditione deficiet legatum arg. l. 21. D. de usu & usu fr. XV. In deposito naufragii causa, quod interpretes depositum miserabile & necessarium appellant, si fides violata sit, actio in duplum datur contra illum apud quem res deposita est aut hæredem ejus l. 1. ß. 1. D. depositi ß. 17. 23. Inst. de Act. Sed hac de re plura lib. 3 c. 2. XVI. Procurrere ad prædam ex naufragio rapiendam, Petronio crudelitas dicitur in Satyric. in l. 3. D. de Fer. atrox injuria appellatur. in l. 44. de adq. rer. dom. & in l. 43. defurt. non solum rapinæ & furti, sed in l. 7. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. expressè latrocinii species habetur. Hinc etiam poenam furti vel quadrupli in jure R. d. l. 44. D. de adq. r. d. l. 1. 3. D. de inc. ruin. nauf. Nov. Leon. 64. & in LL. Visigothor. 7, 2, 18. vel bonorum publicationem l. 18. Cod. de furt. aliamve poenam extraordinariam aut graviorem D 3 pro
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 77 if it should once have perished, the legatee’s condition is worse, l. 26. § 1. de legat. 1. But if the usufruct of a ship has been bequeathed to someone, and it is afterward lost by shipwreck, nevertheless the fruits of the elapsed time from the day of the legacy shall be due to the legatee, arg. l. 12. § 1. D. de usu fr. & arg. l. 62. D. derei vindic. But if the usufruct has been bequeathed under the condition that the ship shall return safe, then, the condition being fulfilled, the legacy will exist; if the condition fail, the legacy will fail, arg. l. 21. D. de usu & usu fr. XV. In a deposit made on account of shipwreck, which the interpreters call a miserable and necessary deposit, if faith be violated, an action for double is granted against him with whom the deposited thing is, or against his heir, l. 1. § 1. D. depositi § 17. 23. Inst. de Act. But more on this matter in book 3, c. 2. XVI. To rush to seize plunder from a shipwreck is called cruelty by Petronius in the Satyricon; in l. 3. D. de Fer. it is called a heinous injury; in l. 44. de adq. rer. dom. & in l. 43. de furt. not only as robbery and theft, but in l. 7. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. it is expressly regarded as a species of brigandage. Hence also the penalty for theft, or quadruple damages in Roman law, d. l. 44. D. de adq. r. d. l. 1. 3. D. de inc. ruin. nauf. Nov. Leon. 64. & in LL. Visigothor. 7, 2, 18. or confiscation of property, l. 18. Cod. de furt. or some other extraordinary or more severe penalty D 3 pro
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78 Ioh. Loccenii pro personarum & rerum conditione meretur l.3 4.7. D. de inc. v. n. l. 1. ß. 1. 2. ad leg. Iul. devi priv. imò ultimum supplicium l.3. ß. 4. de Sicar. & nonnullorum populorum statutis poenam suspendii. Hic autem non solùm edictorum severitate, sed etiam seria executione opus est. qua de re memoria dignum exstat factum & Constitutio Andronici Comneni Imp. (apud Nicetam Choniatem lib. 1 1. Annal.) ad quem quum querelæ de impunita naufragorum direptione delatæ essent, & aulæ proceres hoc malum pro deplorato haberent, quod vetustate corroboratum medicinam respueret, ille respondit: Nihil est quin ab Imperatoribus emendari queat: nec ullum peccatum est, quod vires eorum superet. Superiores autem Imperatores aut rem stultè sunt aggressi, aut se dolere injuriis simularunt: non enim inutilibus literis, sed ense coercere hoc malum debuissent: quod, pravos mores non corrigendo, confirmarunt. Et cum dicto severam poenam in naufragorum spoliatores statuit, addito etiam supplicii fulmine in negligentes executionem ejus. XVII. Pium autem & humanum est, verè naufragorum, qui res suas amiserunt, & qui non culpa sua in hanc calamitatem inciderunt, nec eam mentiuntur, rationem habere arg. l. 37. ß. 1. D. de neg. gest. eorumq; sub-
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78 Johannes Loccenius according to the condition of persons and things, deserves consideration, l. 3. 4. 7. D. de inc. v. n. l. 1. §. 1. 2. ad leg. Iul. de vi priv. indeed the ultimate punishment, l. 3. §. 4. de Sicar. & by the statutes of certain peoples, the penalty of hanging. But here there is need not only of the severity of edicts, but also of earnest execution. In this regard there is a memorable act and the Constitution of Emperor Andronicus Comnenus (in Nicetas Choniates, lib. 11. Annal.), to whom when complaints about the unpunished plundering of shipwreck victims had been brought, and the leading men of the court considered this evil hopeless, because strengthened by long custom it rejected any remedy, he replied: Nothing is beyond what Emperors can correct; nor is there any crime that surpasses their power. But earlier Emperors either undertook the matter foolishly, or pretended to grieve over the injuries; for they ought to have restrained this evil not with useless letters, but with the sword: by not correcting vicious habits, they confirmed them. And with this statement he established a severe punishment for the plunderers of shipwreck victims, adding also the thunderbolt of punishment against those negligent in carrying it out. XVII. But it is pious and humane to take into account those shipwreck victims who truly lost their property, and who fell into this calamity through no fault of their own, and do not feign it, arg. l. 37. §. 1. D. de neg. gest. and their sub-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 79 sublevare fortunas vel ex publico, ut fecit Theodericus rex Gothorum, apud Cassiodorum Var. Ep. 4, 7. & remissione vectigalis Graef. Iur. pub. 30, 11. vel dilatione moratoria debiti, de qua Carp[an]ov. Iur. for. 4, 30. 46. vel ex communi sodalitatum arca, qualis olim apud Græcos erat. Cæsaub. in Character. Ethic. Theophrasti p. m. 199. seqq. Grot. in Luc. c. 6. p. m. 683. & hodie in bene constitutis Rebuspub. esse solet. Si verò major quædam summa ab amicis corrogata eis suppeditetur. vel debiti remissio à creditoribus fiat, æquum est ipsos restituere, cum ad meliorem fortunam redietint; nisi animo donandi, nec repetendi facta sit. l. 33. D. de reg. jur. CAP. VIII. De Iure Portus, Portorii & Vectigalis. I. Portus descriptio. II. Ad portus instaurationem conferenda operæ communes. III. Portum esse publicum, & inter Regalia referri. IV. Finis, usus & privilegia portus. V. Inquisitionarum. Literæ conductus maritimi. D 4
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De Iure Maritimo, Book I, 79 to relieve fortunes either from public funds, as did King Theoderic of the Goths, in Cassiodorus Var. Ep. 4, 7, and remission of a tax, Graef. Iur. pub. 30, 11, or by a delay in repayment of a debt, concerning which Carp[an]ov. Iur. for. 4, 30. 46, or from the common chest of associations, such as once existed among the Greeks. Cæsaub. in Character. Ethic. Theophrasti p. m. 199 ff. Grot. in Luc. c. 6. p. m. 683, and today it is usually so in well-constituted commonwealths. But if some larger sum is supplied to them, collected from friends, or if remission of a debt is made by creditors, it is right that they should repay it when they return to a better fortune; unless it was done with the intention of giving, and not of asking it back. l. 33. D. de reg. jur. CAP. VIII. On the Law of the Port, Portoria, and Toll. I. Description of a port. II. Common labor to be contributed to the restoration of a port. III. That a port is public, and is to be classed among the regalia. IV. The end, use, and privileges of a port. V. Inquiries. Letters of maritime contract. D 4
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80 Ioh. Loccenii ritimi. Designatio mercium. Principalis prælationis jus. VI. Portorium. Vectigal. quis illud instituere & quomodo possit. VII. Pæna commissi. Eâ quoque hæredes teneri. VIII. Quæ naves sint immunes. IX. Errore viæ, vi aut tempestate in alienum portum acti, tutum ibi receptum & egressum jure gentium habent. X. Nisi sint hostes aut piratæ; quos ibi certo modo persequi licet etiam alieni territorii hominibus. I. Post Fluminum & Littorum jura nunc lus Portus illis conjuncti se offert. Portus est conclusus locus, quo importantur merces & exportantur, l. 59. de verb. sign. Aliàs statio, quod ibi tuto naves stare possint l. 1. ß. 13. D. de flum. II. Ad portus instaurationem, quia publicæ utilitatis gratia fit, omnes subditi loci conferre operas debent l. 7. C. de oper. pub. III. Portus intuitu fluminis quo ambitur, & vectigalis quod ex navium statione penditur, est publicus, & hodie Regalibus accensetur. ß. 2. Inst. de rer div. l. 4. ß. 1. D. eod. c. un. quæ sint Regal. IV. Portus, quà publicus, non solùm met-
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80 Ioh. Loccenii ritimi. Designation of merchandise. Right of principal preference. VI. Port duty. Toll. Who may institute it and how. VII. Penalty for breach of customs. The heirs also are bound by it. VIII. What ships are exempt. IX. Those driven by error of course, force, or storm into an alien port have there, by the law of nations, safe reception and departure. X. Unless they are enemies or pirates; whom it is permitted to pursue there in a certain manner, even by men of foreign territory. I. After the rights of rivers and shores, now the right of ports joined to them presents itself. A port is an enclosed place into which goods are brought in and exported, l. 59. de verb. sign. Otherwise a station, because there ships may safely stand, l. 1. § 13. D. de flum. II. For the restoration of ports, because it is done for the sake of public utility, all subjects of the place ought to contribute labor, l. 7. C. de oper. pub. III. A port, in view of the river by which it is surrounded, and of the toll which is paid from the stationing of ships, is public, and today is reckoned among the Regalia. § 2. Inst. de rer div. l. 4. § 1. D. eod. c. un. quæ sint Regal. IV. A port, as public, not only met-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. Si mercibus exonerandis inservit, sed ut naves ibi tutum receptaculum habeant, & jure debito ac securitate fruantur navigantes, quatenus innocuum iter & stationem quæ- runt. Hinc Portus & Navalia privilegio pacis publicæ gaudent arg. l. 1. §. stationem D. de flum. cap. 2. jur. Nautic. Sued. c. 1. §. 1. de viol. jur. Reg. c. 14. de homic. vol. Et pro- hiberi nemo libero ingressu aut egressu por- tus jure gentium potest; nisi quem istius loci dominus pro hoste habeat, aut me- tuat ut hostium partibus studentem. Me- garensium querela quondam justa visa fuit, quod contra jus gentium & libertatem Græciæ portu Athenienium excluderen- tur. Diodor. Sicul. lib. 12. Platarch. in Pericl. Cun. in causa postliminii p. 262. Nihil etiam in littore aut ponte portui proximo fiet, quo portus aut stationis usus impediatur l. 1. D. de flum. arg. c. 19. de jure naut. Sued. Quæcunque naves ex quolibet portu di- missæ, nullam concussionem vel damnum sustinebunt l. un. Cod. de lit. & itin. custod. V. Hoc tamen juri portus debetur, & Principis loci jurisdictioni, ut præfectus portus inquirat, quæ navis & undevene- rt, quid vchat. d. l. un. Cunam in caus. postl. p. 279. Hoc est consentaneum ei juri, quod portubus & rei maritimæ passim apud alias nationes impositum est. Sic AEnea cum D 5 classe
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On Maritime Law, Book I. If it serves for unloading merchandise, but so that ships may have there a safe refuge, and that sailors may enjoy due right and security, so far as they seek an unharmed passage and station. Hence ports and naval stations enjoy the privilege of public peace; arg. l. 1. §. stationem D. de flum. cap. 2. jur. Nautic. Sued. c. 1. §. 1. de viol. jur. Reg. c. 14. de homic. vol. And no one can be prevented from free entrance or exit to a port by the law of nations, unless the lord of that place regard him as an enemy, or fear him as one favoring the enemy’s cause. The complaint of the Megarians once seemed just, because, contrary to the law of nations and the freedom of Greece, they were excluded from the port of the Athenians. Diodor. Sicul. lib. 12. Plutarch. in Pericl. Cun. in causa postliminii p. 262. Nor shall anything be done on the shore or bridge near the port, by which the use of the port or station may be impeded; l. 1. D. de flum. arg. c. 19. de jure naut. Sued. Ships dismissed from whatever port, shall suffer no violence or damage l. un. Cod. de lit. & itin. custod. V. This, however, is owed to the law of the port, and to the jurisdiction of the Prince of the place, so that the prefect of the port may inquire what ship it is, and whence it came, what it carries. d. l. un. Cunam in caus. postl. p. 279. This is consistent with that law which has been imposed on ports and maritime affairs everywhere among other nations. Thus Æneas with D 5 fleet
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82 Ioh. Loccenii classe sua in Evandri portum delato, Pallas apud Maronem 8. AEneid. Quò tenditis? inquit: Qui genus? unde domo? pacemne huc fertis an arma? Vt magister navis à sui loci magistratu literis commeatus ex more hodierno maritimo aut passus maritimi, ut vocant, epistolaque assertoria, vulgò certificationem appellant, instructus sit: vel inventario ac designatione mercium omnium navi impositarum in instrumento contractus nautici rite confecta (Gall. lettres de charte partie) ac professione speciali, quæ ex visitatione & excussione navis recta deprehendatur, & solutione justi vectigalis impleatur. Causa est, ne magister navis aliud pro alio, aut sub alieno titulo profiteatur: ne quid illicitum invehat evehatve: ne quid occultet & suppprimat: ne quid alienum, quod vectigal debet, suo, quod forte immune est, admisceat: atq; ut evitetur longa detentio, poena publicationis bonorum aut commissi. quod pactis & juri diversorum populorum atque specialibus Vectigalis ordinationibus congruum est. Naves tamen immunes, & tam mercium ratione quam proprio jure ac privilegio exemtæ, non necesse habent istam mercium professionem apud publicanos, inquisitionem & visi-
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82. Ioh. Loccenii having brought his fleet into Evander’s harbor, Pallas in Maro, Aeneid 8: “Whither do you steer?” he said. “What race? From what home? Do you bring peace or arms?” Thus the master of a ship must be furnished by the magistrate of his own place with letters of safe-conduct according to present maritime custom, or maritime passes, as they call them, and a testimonial letter, commonly called certification, together with an inventory and designation of all goods loaded on the ship, duly made out in the instrument of the nautical contract (Gall. lettres de charte partie), and with a special declaration, which is properly ascertained from the visitation and inspection of the ship, and is fulfilled by the payment of the just duty. The reason is, lest the shipmaster declare one thing for another, or under another title: lest he import or export anything unlawful: lest he conceal and suppress anything: lest he mix anything foreign, which owes duty, with his own, which perhaps is exempt: and so that long detention may be avoided, and the penalty of confiscation of goods or forfeiture. This is in accordance with agreements and the law of different peoples and with special ordinances of customs. Yet exempt ships, and those exempt both by reason of their cargo and by their own right and privilege, do not need this declaration of goods before the publicans, the inquiry and visi-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 83 visitationem subire, quam aliæ naves vectigali oneratæ subeunt. Peck. in tit. Cod. de Navicular. & Vinn. ib. pag. 378. nisi quod quorundam populorum pactis generalem certificationem publicano ostendunt. quo- modo hoc cautum sit legibus pacis inter Regna Suediæ & Daniæ vid. art. 5, 6. & seqq. Pacific. Sueo-Dan. Nonnullis quoque populorum institutis jus prælationis Princeps loci in mercibus invectis vi Regalium in portum habet, ut, quod ipsi placet ex mercibus, pro justo pretio emat eligatque præ aliis. velut in jure Sued. c. 1. de jur. naut. c. 33. de jur. merc. cautum est. Huc respexit Chytræus in Chron. Saxon. part. 2. p.m. 211. ubi de Gustavo I. & Lubec. agit: Naves ac merces invectas ac evehendas primum Regis ministris inspiciendas præbere; ac si quid Regi ex mercibus emere aut retinere libeat, jus ipsi concedere cogit. Idem veteri jure Noveg. c. 9 de jur. merc. constitutu[m] fuit. VI. A portu dicitur Portorium, pecunia quæ Fisco vel Reipub penditur ex mercibus aut venalitiis quæ huic oneri subjacent. Cujac. ad tit. Cod. de Vectig. & comm. Vectigal autem appellatur à vectura, vel in- vectione & evectione mercium, quod solvi debet non solùm pro nudo transitu, sed etiam pro fide & securitate pub. & onere tuendæ navigationis adversus vim & piratæ, D 6
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 83 to undergo inspection, which other ships laden with customs dues undergo. Peck. in tit. Cod. de Navicular. & Vinn. ib. pag. 378. except that, by the agreements of certain peoples, they show the general certificate to the publican. In what way this has been provided for by the laws of peace between the Kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark, see art. 5, 6, & seqq. Pacific. Sueo-Dan. In some also of the institutions of peoples, the prince of the place, by right of regalia, has a right of preemption in goods brought into the harbor, so that he may buy and choose for himself, at a fair price, whatever pleases him from among the goods, in preference to others. As, for example, in the Swedish law, c. 1. de jur. naut. c. 33. de jur. merc. it is provided. Chytræus had this in view in Chron. Saxon. part. 2. p.m. 211, where he deals with Gustavus I. and Lübeck: that ships and goods brought in and to be exported are first to be inspected by the king’s officials; and if it should please the king to buy or retain anything from among the goods, the right is compelled to be granted to him. The same was established by the old Norwegian law, c. 9 de jur. merc. VI. From a port is called portorium, the money which is paid to the treasury or commonwealth from goods or wares subject to this burden. Cujac. ad tit. Cod. de Vectig. & comm. Vectigal, however, is called from vectura, or the bringing in and sending out of merchandise, because it ought to be paid not only for bare passage, but also for public faith and security, and for the burden of protecting navigation against force and pirate, D 6
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84 Ioh. Loccenii tas, & juvandæ per ignes nocturnos ac brevium signa, pro expositione & vendi- tione mercium? Prem. init. Tract. de Se- curit. promiss. & Fide pub. p. m. 14. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 3, 14. Camden. Hist. Angl. pag. 842. (Huc etiam referas quam vocant palorum pecuniam, de qua in privil. Amst. p. 28. 29. & in Statut. Dantisc. p. 1. art. 22.) Vectigal autem instituere est summi im- perii l. 10. D. de publican. l. 2. 3. C. Vectig. nov. 1. aut quibus hoc concedit suprema potestas; aut quibus tempore memoriam hominum excedente adquisitum est. Hoc non privatæ, sed publicæ, non alienæ sed suæ potestatis ac moderationis pro status pub. conditione Principes esse volunt. Camdenus p. 3. Hist. Elisab. pag. 351. Prin- cipes vectigalia quæ semel intenderunt, vix unquam relaxant; qui hujusmodi Regalia (ut vocant) ad cujusque regni jus & liberta- tem spectare, nec externæ moderatoni subja- cere judicant. Extra necessitatem tamen & utilitatem pub. non augeri, respectumque ad merces habere, leges pacti & modum causæ non excedere fas est. l. 7, 8, 13. C. de Vectig Grot. de jur. bell. & pac. 2, 2, 14. Six- tin. de Regal. 2, 6, 45. & 47. seqq. Sed nec illicitè ac per vim extorqueri debet l. 6. ß. 5. D. de publican. & vect. VII. Si quis non professus fuerit omnes mer-
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84 Ioh. Loccenii and assistance by night fires and short signals, for the display and sale of merchandise? Prem. init. Tract. de Securit. promiss. & Fide pub. p. m. 14. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 3, 14. Camden. Hist. Angl. pag. 842. (To this also refer what is called palorum pecunia, concerning which see privil. Amst. p. 28, 29, and Statut. Dantisc. p. 1, art. 22.) But to establish a tax is an act of supreme authority, l. 10. D. de publican. l. 2, 3. C. Vectig. nov. 1. either for those to whom supreme power grants this; or for those who, by long-continued possession beyond the memory of men, have acquired it. This, according to the condition of the public state, princes wish to be not a matter of private but of public power, not of another's but of their own authority and discretion. Camdenus p. 3. Hist. Elisab. pag. 351. Princes scarcely ever relax taxes once they have imposed them; those who judge such regalia (as they are called) to pertain to the right and liberty of each kingdom, and not to be subject to external control. Yet outside of necessity and public utility they ought not to be increased, regard being had to commodities, and the laws of agreement and the measure of the matter must not be exceeded. l. 7, 8, 13. C. de Vectig Grot. de jur. bell. & pac. 2, 2, 14. Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 6, 45. & 47. seqq. But neither should they be exacted unlawfully and by force, l. 6. § 5. D. de publican. & vect. VII. If anyone shall not have declared all mer-
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De lure Maritimo Lib I. 85 merces, pro quibus vectigal debetur, in commissum cadunt aut Fisco cedunt occultatæ vel inscriptæ, ut veteres loquebantur, id est non scriptæ. Lucilius lib XXVII. Satyr. apud Nonium: Facit idem quod illi qui inscriptum è portu exportant clan. ulum, ne portorum dent. Item si vetitæ merces advehantur, vel cum illis ad hostile solum navigetur, eædem in commissum cadunt l.2. Cod. quæ res exp. non deb. Poena verò commissi etiam hæredes defraudantis tenet, si modò vivo eo qui deliquit, quæstio mota sit, & sententia declaratoria subsecuta, qua declaretur illud crimen fuisse commissum l.8.l.14.l.16. ß.13. de publican. Sixtin. d. loc. n. 171. VIII. Naves tamen à vectigali immunes hîc excipiuntur. quæ immunitas mutuis inter vicinos aut confoederatos pactis institui, vel pro rerum & temporum ratione tolli potest. Vid. art. I,2. seqq. art. 18. Pacific Sueo-Danie. de anno MDCXLV. Sed & errore viæ, vi tempestatis, metu piratarum aut aliorum hostium probabili, aut reparationis causa naves ex necessitate in portum actæ vel relatæ, pro non soluto vectigali, commisso non vindicantur l.15. l.16. ß.8. D. de publican. nisi quod quarundam gentium instituto pecuniæ aliquid pro tuta statione præstari solet, quam vulgò vocant
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On Maritime Law, Book I. 85 merchandise on which duty is owed falls into forfeiture or is assigned to the Treasury when concealed or unregistered, as the older writers said, that is, not written down. Lucilius, book XXVII, Satires, apud Nonius: He does the same as those who export from the port what is unregistered, lest they pay port charges. Likewise, if prohibited merchandise is brought in, or if one sails with such goods to enemy territory, the same goods fall into forfeiture. l.2. Cod. quæ res exp. non deb. But the penalty of forfeiture also binds the heirs of the defrauder, provided that, while he who committed the offense was still alive, the inquiry had been begun, and a declaratory judgment had followed, declaring that the crime had been committed. l.8. l.14. l.16. §.13. de publican. Sixtin. loc. cit. no. 171. VIII. However, ships exempt from the duty are here excepted. Such immunity can be established by mutual agreements among neighboring peoples or confederates, or, according to the circumstances of things and times, can be withdrawn. See art. I,2. seq. art. 18. Peace of the Swedes and Danes, of the year 1645. But also, through error of navigation, force of storm, fear of pirates or other enemies reasonably shown, or for the purpose of repair, ships driven into a port or brought back there by necessity are not claimed as forfeited for nonpayment of duty. l.15. l.16. §.8. D. de publican. except that under the practice of certain nations some money is usually paid for safe anchorage, which they commonly call
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86 Ioh. Loccenii vocant pecuniam anchorariam. vid. art. 12. Pacific. Sueo Dan. Merces quoque quas semel in isto portu exonerare cæperunt, ibidem vendere quorundam populorum moribus necesse habent. IX. Aliàs jactatæ naves mari & expulsæ errore itineris, vi aut tempestate in alienum portum, velut ad alienum præsidium confugientes, ibi ex communi gentium jure fidam stationem habere liberèque recedere solent. Hoc jus gentium intuetur Virgilius IV. Georg. Deprensis olim statio tutissima nautis. Et Latinus apud eundem VII. AEneid. sic invitat socios AEneæ: Sive errore viæ, seu tempestatibus acti (Qualia multa mari nautæ patiuntur in alto) Fuminis intrastis ripas, portuque sedetis, Ne fugite hospitium. In foedere pacis & commerciorum inter Henr. VII. Reg. Angl. & Philippum Ducem Burgund. etiam hoc pactum est percussum, ut naves vi aut tempestate in alterius portum depulsæ tutum ibi receptum, liberumque inde egressum haberent c. 21. dicti foed. Libertatem sanè commerciorum & navigationis tollit, & ingentia naturæ munera in injuriam vertit, qui publicam securitatem in portu denegat his, quos illuc longæ navigationis languor, aut tempestatum vis
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86 Ioh. Loccenii call it anchor money. See art. 12 Pacific. Sueo Dan. Merchants also, which once they have begun to unload in that port, must, by the customs of certain peoples, sell there. IX. Likewise ships driven about at sea and forced by a mistake in their course, by violence or by storm into a foreign port, as if taking refuge at a foreign stronghold, are accustomed there, by the common law of nations, to have a safe station and freely to depart. Virgil has regard to this law of nations in IV. Georg. Deprensis olim statio tutissima nautis. And Latinus in the same, VII. AEneid., thus invites the companions of AEneas: Sive errore viæ, seu tempestatibus acti (Qualia multa mari nautæ patiuntur in alto) Fluminis intrastis ripas, portuque sedetis, Ne fugite hospitium. In the treaty of peace and commerce between Henry VII, King of England, and Philip, Duke of Burgundy, this also was agreed upon, that ships, driven by force or by storm into the other's port, should have a safe reception there, and a free departure thence, c. 21 of the said treaty. Indeed, he who denies public security in a port to those whom the weariness of a long voyage, or the force of storms, has brought there, takes away the freedom of commerce and navigation, and turns the great gifts of nature into an injury.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 87 vis ex alto appulit. Cum hos in alienam fidem confugere, & ei se ac sua committere necessitas extrema & miserabilis casus adigit, prope est ut hi in eadem causa esse videantur, qui periculi vitandi causa, hoc est naufragii, ruinæ, tumultus gratia res suas apud aliquem deponunt; uti Cunæus in causa postlimini p. m. 262, 263. eruditè disserit. vid. & inf. lib. 2. c. 4. n. 6. & seqq. X. Si verò sint hostiles vel piraticæ naves, aut pro iis habeantur, illis accessum denegari nihil est mirum. unde socii AEneæ pelago jactari, turumq; accessum à Didone petentes ajunt apud Maronem 1. AEn. Non nos aut ferro Libycos populare penates Venimus, aut raptas ad littora vertere prædas. Quassatam ventis liceat subducere classem, Et silvis aptare trabes, & stringere remos. Lesbios unicè laudat Pompejus, quod uxori, sibique licet jam à Cæsare victo & profugo liberum tamen accessum & recessum dederint, apud Lucanum lib. VII. v. 144. & seqq. cum hoc voto: Da similes Lesbo populos, qui Marte subactu[m], Non intrare suos infesto Cæsare portus, Non exire vetent. Quin & hostilium navium continuam persecutionem & in eas excursionem in alieno froto vel portu excusandam putant, si per-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 87 force driven by the sea. When men, under extreme and miserable necessity, are compelled to take refuge in another’s protection and to commit themselves and their property to him, it is nearly the same as when those, for the purpose of avoiding peril, that is, shipwreck, ruin, or tumult, deposit their goods with someone; as Cuneus, in the cause of postliminy, p. m. 262, 263, discusses learnedly. See also below, lib. 2, c. 4, n. 6, and following. X. But if they are hostile or piratical ships, or are taken for such, it is no wonder that access to them is denied. Hence the companions of Aeneas, tossed upon the sea, are said to have sought access from Dido in Virgil, Aen. 1: “We have not come to ravage the Libyan homes with the sword, Nor to turn plundered spoils back to the shore. May it be allowed us to draw aside our shattered fleet by the winds, And fit timbers in the woods, and fashion oars.” Pompey especially praised the Lesbians because they had granted both to his wife and to himself, although already defeated and fleeing from Caesar, free access and departure, in Lucan, lib. VII, v. 144, and following, with this wish: “Grant a people like the Lesbians, who, subdued in war, Do not forbid from entering their harbors with hostile Caesar, Nor from leaving them.” Indeed, they think that even a continuous pursuit of hostile ships and an attack upon them in another’s roadstead or harbor is excusable, if it...
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88 Ioh. Loccenii periculum sit in mora. Fit enim hoc vim hostis nobis imminentem à finibus nostris propulsandi, non alieni aut vicini territorii fines violandi animo. Et jus ac necessitas defensionis nullum limitem seu terminum agnoscere, omique injuria carere videtur. Besold. de jur. territ. c. 3. n. 4. Sic Trumpius classis Holl. præfectus anno MDCXXXIX. feliciter occurrit classi hostili Hispanorum iu portu Duinensi Britannorum, licet illis contradicentibus & prohibentibus; quod potest quisque in suo territorio. CAP. IX. De jure piscandi. I. Ius piscandi omnibus commune esse primæ- vo jure naturæ, gentium & divino. II. Quod postea inter Regalia relatum, unà cum fructibus ejus. III. Iure Regalium & legibus piscationum non posse tolli omnem piscandi libertatem. IV. Libertatem piscandi in alieno mari aut froto exteris quoque certo modo con- cedi posse ab illo qui imperium in illud habet. V. Ius piscandi subditis & privatis quate- nus competat. VI. Quatenus hæredibus competat. VII. Per
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88 John Loccenius there is danger in delay. For this is done with the intention of repelling the force of an enemy threatening us from our frontiers, not with the intent of violating the bounds of another’s or a neighboring territory. And the right and necessity of defense seem to acknowledge no boundary or limit, and to be free from all wrongdoing. Besold. de jur. territ. c. 3. n. 4. Thus Trumpius, commander of the Dutch fleet, in the year MDCXXXIX, successfully confronted the hostile fleet of the Spaniards in the British port of Duin, although they objected and forbade it; for what each one can do in his own territory. CHAP. IX. On the right of fishing. I. That the right of fishing is common to all by the original law of nature, of nations, and divine law. II. That it was afterward included among the Regalia, together with its fruits. III. That by the law of Regalities and the laws of fisheries, all freedom of fishing cannot be taken away. IV. That the freedom of fishing in another’s sea or strait may also, in a certain way, be granted to foreigners by him who has sovereignty over it. V. How far the right of fishing belongs to subjects and private persons. VI. How far it belongs to heirs. VII. Per
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 89 VII. Per piscationem non impediendum esse navigationis usum. I. Sed & hoc Portus beneficium est, ut jus piscandi in eo sit commune; nec in portu solùm, sed etiam in fluminibus publicis & mari: quia portus & flumina publica sunt, mare autem commune est. idque primævo jure naturæ, & gentium ß.2. Inst. de rer. div. l.5. ß.1. D. eod. quod in jure divino fundatum est Gen. 1. v. 28. Gen. 9. v.2. II. Verum hoc non simpliciter est naturale, sed in mari nullius ditioni subjecto; atque si in certis locis non aliter lege aut moribus cautum sit: quos observari debere jus ipsum naturæ dictat. Lex enim civilis etsi nihil potest contra jus naturæ permittere aut prohibere, potest tamen libertatem naturalem circumscribere, & vetare quod naturaliter licebat. Grot. de jur. bell. & pac. lib. 2. cap. 2. ß.5. & cap. 3. ß.8.9. seqq. & cap. 8. ß.5. Et Cujacius lib. 4. Obs. c.2. ait: Mores ubique jus gentium passim subegerunt, adeò ut ne in flumine quidem publico piscari liceat. Ex quo enim Principes imperium in aquas ipsorum territorio subjectas sibi vendicant, promiscuæ piscandi libertati fibulam quandam lege sua imposuerunt. Inde factum est, ut piscationes in mari aut flu-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 89 VII. That navigation is not to be impeded by fishing. I. But this also is a benefit of a port, that the right of fishing in it is common; and not only in a port, but also in public rivers and the sea: because ports and public rivers are public, but the sea is common. And this by the original law of nature and of nations, §.2. Inst. de rer. div. l.5. §.1. D. eod., which is founded in divine law, Gen. 1. v. 28. Gen. 9. v. 2. II. Yet this is not natural simply in all cases, but in the sea not subject to the dominion of anyone; and also if in certain places nothing else has been provided by law or custom: which the law of nature itself teaches ought to be observed. For civil law, although it can permit or prohibit nothing against the law of nature, can nevertheless circumscribe natural liberty, and forbid what was naturally allowed. Grotius, de jur. bell. & pac. lib. 2. cap. 2. §.5. & cap. 3. §.8.9. seq. & cap. 8. §.5. And Cujacius, lib. 4. Obs. c.2., says: Customs everywhere have subjected the law of nations, so that it is not permitted even to fish in a public river. For as soon as princes claim for themselves dominion over the waters subject to their territory, they have by their law imposed some kind of restraint upon the common liberty of fishing. Hence it came about that fishing in the sea or in rivers...
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90 Ioh. Loccenii flumine pub. tandem inter Regalia referrentur c. un. Quæ sint Regal. quæ longâ consuetudine ex tacita civium conventione firmata sunt: ita ut hodie non amplius de jure quærendo, sed quæsito tuendo disceptetur. Graef Iur. pub c. 40. n. 3. Hinc lacus piscatorii in censum domini deferri dicuntur in l. 4. ß. 6. D. de censib. Et jus piscandi cum Feudo à superioribus conferri Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 18, 30. vel aliis ex venia concedi c. 29. ß. 1. de jur. adif. L. L. prov. Suet. aut alio justo titulo in alium transferri vel piscatio publicè locari pro certis reditibus aut exactionibus Fisco inferendis potest. exceptis tam e quæ hamo capiuntur. Hamorum enim usus in quacunque civitate receptus, in aquis publicis ab omni exactione liber est. Graef. d. loc. n. 3. Sic jure Regalium Suetiæ Reges habent suas decimas ex piscationibus publicis, aut alios proventus ex locatione vel concessione piscationum in mari aut fluminibus publicis hujus regni, suosque peculiares tractus aut ductus piscationum, quos Alveos Regios aut Venas Regias sua lingua vocant. vid. Recess. Holm. de anno 1643. art. ult. Sic Regibus Lusitaniæ præter alios maritimos reditus cedunt quoque balænæ ejectæ. Georg. de Cubedo decis. Lusit. par. 2. dec. 48. III. Eodem jure Regalium Princeps certum
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90 Ioh. Loccenii the river, public things are finally referred among the Regalia, c. un. What the Regal rights are, which by long custom have been confirmed by the tacit agreement of the citizens: so that today the dispute is no longer about seeking the right, but about defending the right once sought. Graef Iur. pub. c. 40. n. 3. Hence fishponds are said to be included in the owner’s assessment in l. 4. §. 6. D. de censib. And the right of fishing, together with the fief, may be conferred by superiors Sixtin. de Regal. 2, 18, 30. or granted by others by permission c. 29. §. 1. de jur. adif. L. L. prov. Suet. or transferred to another by some other lawful title, or fishing may be publicly leased for certain revenues or exactions to be paid into the Treasury. excepted are those fish which are caught with a hook. For the use of hooks, admitted in whatever city, in public waters is free from all exaction. Graef. d. loc. n. 3. Thus, by the law of the Regal rights, the Kings of Sweden have their tithes from public fisheries, or other revenues from the leasing or granting of fisheries in the sea or the public rivers of this kingdom, and their special fishing districts or channels, which in their language they call Royal Channels or Royal Veins. vid. Recess. Holm. de anno 1643. art. ult. Thus, to the Kings of Portugal, besides other maritime revenues, stranded whales also accrue. Georg. de Cubedo decis. Lusit. par. 2. dec. 48. III. By the same right of Regal rights the Prince certain
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 91 certum piscandi modum præscribere subditis suis ex usu publico & consensu potest. Ad conservationem enim eorum quæ juris quidem gentium sunt, absque gentium tamen læsione reipub. bono conducunt, Princeps leges proposito suo convenientes ferre potest, uti in halecum captura Ordines Hollandiæ fecerunt, notante Graefio di- etocap. n.4. & alii Principes ac Republicæ in aliorum piscium captura possunt. Istæ tamen leges omnem piscandi libertatem subditis penitus adimere, omniaque fisco vendicare non possunt, certè non debent. quod Domitianus & ministri ejus tentabant. quo nomine Iuvenalis eos urbano sale tangit sat. IV. ubi de rhombo in mari Hadriaco capto, & à piscatore Principi destinato loquitur: Quis enim proponere talem Aut emere auderet? cum plena & littora multo Delatore forent: dispersi protinus alga Inquisitores agerent cum remige nudo, Non dubitaturi fugitivum dicere piscem, Depastumque diu vivaria Cæsaris, inde Elapsum, veterem ad dominum deberere. verti, Si quid Palphurio, sic redimus Armillato, Quidquid conspicuum est pulcrumque ex æquoretoto, Res
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 91 It can prescribe a certain method of fishing to its subjects by reason of public utility and consent. For the preservation, indeed, of those things which are in a sense matters of the law of nations, but which nevertheless conduce to the common good of the state without injury to the nations, a prince may enact laws suited to his purpose, as the States of Holland did in the taking of herrings, as Graefius notes, dietocap. n. 4, and other princes and republics may do in the catching of other fish. Yet such laws cannot wholly take away all liberty of fishing from subjects, nor appropriate everything to the treasury; certainly they ought not to. This was what Domitian and his ministers were attempting. On this account Juvenal touches them with urbane wit, Sat. IV, where he speaks of a turbot caught in the Adriatic Sea and assigned by the fisherman to the Emperor: For who indeed would dare to offer or buy such a thing? when the shores too were full Of informers; and spies scattered at once, like seaweed, Would harass the boatmen with the naked remonstrance, Not hesitating to call the fish a runaway, One that had long fed in Caesar’s preserves, and thence Escaped, now owing return to its former master. turned, If anything to Palphurius, thus we return to Armillatus, Whatever is conspicuous and beautiful from the whole sea, Thing
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92 Ioh. Loccenii Res fisci est ubicunque natat. donabitur ergo, Ne pereat. Vide colorem ac ingenium calumniæ, quæ singit rhombum Imperatoris vivario aut piscinæ inclusum, in dominio ejus fuisse, ideoque inde elapsum occupantis fieri non posse, sed domino suo restituendum esse, ubicunque deprehensus recognoscatur. Paltutius autem & Armillarus speciosiori palpo omnia Principis fisco attribuunt, quæcunque alicujus pretii in mari reperiuntur. Huc referas illud Ambrosii, quo invehitur in tales Principes Hexaemer. lib. V. cap. XXX. Piscium jura sicut vernaculorum conditione sibi servitii subjecta commemorant. Sint priores in mari finibus suis circumscripto aut flumine pub. piscandi partes Principi, sint ipsi magni inde fructus, & sua Regalia. non tamen omnia in Fiscum trahere potest. hoc enim ipsius naturæ beneficio prorsus repugnaret, quæ non Principis solum sed cæterorum quoque hominum caussa pisces comparavit (vid. l. 28. ß. 1. D. de usur.) igitur illis quoque partem eorum lubens concedet, quæ natura non invidet aut denegat ceteris hominibus. Seneca lib. IV. de benefic. cap. V. Animalia omnis generis, alia in sicco solidoque, alia in humido innascentia, alia per sublime dimissa: ut omnis rerum naturæ pars tributum
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92 Ioh. Loccenii The fishery belongs to the treasury wherever it swims. It shall therefore be given away, Lest it perish. See the color and character of the slander, which imagines a rhombus enclosed in the Emperor’s fish-pond or pool to have been in his ownership, and therefore, having escaped from there, cannot become the property of the captor, but must be restored to its owner, wherever it is found and recognized. But Paltutius and Armillarus, with a more specious pretext, assign to the prince’s treasury all things of any value found in the sea. Refer here to that passage of Ambrose, where he attacks such princes, Hexaemer. book V, ch. XXX. They remark that the rights of fish, like those of natives, are subject to service under their condition. Let the fishing rights in the sea, bounded by its own limits, or in a public river, belong first to the prince; let there be for him great fruits from them, and his regalia. Yet he cannot draw everything into the treasury. For this would be wholly contrary to nature itself, which has provided fish not for the prince alone but for the rest of mankind as well (see l. 28. § 1. D. de usur.) therefore he will gladly concede to them also a share of those things which nature does not begrudge or deny to other men. Seneca, book IV, de benefic. ch. V. Creatures of every kind, some born on dry land and solid ground, others in the moist, others released through the upper air: so that every part of nature’s order pays tribute
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 93 butum aliquod nobis conferret. Hujus naturalis tributi partem bonus Princeps, incolumi suo jure & piscationum fructu, cæteris haud invitus permittere solet. Seneca lib. VII. de benefic. cap. V. Sub optimo Rege omnia Rex imperio possidet, singuli dominio. quæ nimirum justo dominio adquiri possunt. Et cap. VI. Cæsar omnia habet: fiscus ejus privata tantum ac sua. & universa in imperio ejus sunt, in patrimonio propria. Absque tamen venia pub. præfectique portus Regii directione piscatio in publico non est permissa, jure portus Suedico Caroli octavi, art. 14. & 25. IV. Quin si exteris ex pacto, vel precario, aut iudulgentia Principis, aut pro certo vectigali piscatura, in freto aut mari ejus dirioni subjecto, velut pastio in agro compascuo ad certum ac determinatum modum concedi potest, atque constituto tempore renovari solet; quidni idem concedatur indigenis? Exteris autem dicto modo concedi posse, statuit Leo Imp. Novel. 56. in fin. Sicut terrenis locis præter voluntatem domini ex alieno fructus percipere nemini conceditur; sed si quis fructus ex alieno colligit, eos vel benignitate domini percipiat, vel pro loci usu vectigal solvat necesse est. Sic etiam maritimis oris observari præcipimus. Idem testantur hujus facti exempla. Seldenu[m]
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 93 butum of some kind might be conferred on us. A good Prince is accustomed, without prejudice to his own right and the profit of the fisheries, to permit a share of this natural tribute to others, not unwillingly. Seneca lib. VII. de benefic. cap. V. Under the best King, the King possesses all things by his sovereignty, individuals by ownership, namely those things which can rightly be acquired by ownership. And cap. VI. The Caesar has everything: his fisc only what is private and his own. And all things are in his empire, in his patrimony they are proper. However, without permission and the direction of the royal port authority, fishing in public is not permitted, by the Swedish law of the port of Charles VIII, art. 14 and 25. IV. Indeed, if to foreigners, by agreement or at will, or by the indulgence of the Prince, or for a certain rent, fishing in the strait or sea subject to his dominion can be granted in a certain and determinate measure, like pasture in common land, and is usually renewed at a fixed time; why should the same not be granted to natives? But that it can be granted to foreigners in the said manner is established by Leo the Emperor, Novel. 56, at the end. As in terrestrial places, apart from the will of the owner, it is not granted to anyone to take produce from another's property; but if anyone gathers produce from another's property, he must receive it either by the kindness of the owner, or pay a rent for the use of the place. Thus also we decree that it be observed along maritime shores. The examples of this fact testify to the same thing. Seldenu[m]
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94 Ioh. Loccenii nus lib.2. Mar. claus.cap 20. pag.427. Ex foederibus cum vicinis Principibus initis toties ejusmodi libertas ita utrinq[ue] fuit indulta, ut constante foedere, velut ager compascuus tam federato utenti quam Anglo domino mare deserviret. Sic Hollandis jus piscandi haleces in mari Britannico concellum esse constat ex foedere pacis ac mutui commercii, quod initum est Londini anno MCCCCLIX. inter Henricum VII. Regem Angliæ, & Philippum Archiducem Austriæ, Ducem Burgund. Hollandiæ Comitem; & integrum exstat in Apologia Boxhornii pro Navigate. Holland. inprimis cap.14. isdem, ut & Anglis aliquando in Scania, Norvegia idem à Regibus Daniæ ac Norveg. indultum esse, ex Annalibus constat. vid. Pontan.lib.1. Discuss. Histor. c.21. Quod autem Grotius lib. V. Mar. lib. p.m. 53. vult exteris jus piscandi ubique immune esse debere, ne servitus imponatur mari, quod servire non potest (l.13. comm. præd.) hoc quidem ita esse oporteret, si nudum jus naturæ & gentium ubique sequeremur; & lege vel pacto non aliud constitueretur ab eo, qui imperium in suæ terræ undas sibi arrogat. quâ ratione motus Grotius postea diversum sentit in lib II. de jur. belli & pac. cap.II. ß.V. De feris, inquit, piscibus, avibus illud notandum est, qui imperium habet in terras aquas
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94. Ioh. Loccenii nus lib. 2. Mar. claus. cap. 20. pag. 427. Ex foederibus cum vicinis Principibus initis toties ejusmodi libertas ita utrinque fuit indulta, ut constante foedere, velut ager compascuus tam foederato utenti quam Anglo domino mare deserviret. Thus the right of fishing for herring in the British sea is known to have been conceded to the Hollanders by the treaty of peace and mutual commerce, which was concluded at London in the year 1459 between Henry VII, King of England, and Philip, Archduke of Austria, Duke of Burgundy, Count of Holland; and the whole text still exists in Boxhornius's Apologia pro Navigate. Holland. especially cap. 14. The same, as also to the English at one time in Scania and Norway, the same was granted by the Kings of Denmark and Norway, as the annals show. see Pontan. lib. 1. Discuss. Histor. c. 21. But as for what Grotius lib. V. Mar. lib. p.m. 53. maintains, that foreigners ought everywhere to have a free right of fishing, lest servitude be imposed on the sea, which cannot serve (l. 13. comm. præd.), this indeed would have to be so, if we followed purely the law of nature and of nations everywhere; and if by law or compact nothing else were established by him who arrogates to himself dominion over the waves of his own land. Moved by which reasoning, Grotius later thinks differently in lib. II. de jur. belli & pac. cap. II. § V. Of wild animals, he says, fish, birds, this is to be noted: he who has dominion over the lands waters
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 95 aquas, ejus lege posse impediri aliquos, ne feras, pisces, aves capere, & capiendo acquirere ex liceat: atque hac lege teneri etiam exteros. Ratio est, quia ad gubernationem populi moraliter necessarium est, ut qui et vel ad tempus se admiscent, quod fit intrando territorium, ii conformes se reddant ejus populi institutis. Nec obstat, quod sæpe in jure Romano legimus, jure naturæ aut gentium liberum esse, talia animalia venari, (aut capere) hoc enim verum est quamdiu lex civilis nulla intercedit, sicut lex Romana res multas relinquebat in illo primævo statu, de quibus aliæ gentes aliud constituerunt. In foedere Regum Galliæ & Angliæ pactum initum, piscaturam utriusque subditos liberè exercere posse toto mari, quod hinc portu Scardeburgensi & Southamtoniensi, illinc Flandriæ extremo & Sequanæ fluvii ostio terminetur. Tempus item ab autumno intra Ianuarias, quæ sequerentur, Kalendas coerceri. Ecce limites tum loci, tum temporis piscaturæ positi, uti notat Seldenus in Mari clauso, dicto sup[er] loco. Modum ergo Principes hic suis & exteris vel ex conventione, vel vi imperii in suum fretum præscribere queunt. V. In fluvio autem alicujus privato proprioque ipsi solum domino, non aliis absq[ue] furti crimine piscari licet: is enim ad
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 95 waters, by its law, some may be prevented from taking wild animals, fish, or birds, and from acquiring them by capture: and by this law even foreigners are bound. The reason is, because for the government of the people it is morally necessary that those who also, even for a time, associate themselves with it, which is done by entering the territory, should conform themselves to the institutions of that people. Nor does it matter that we often read in Roman law that, by the law of nature or of nations, it is free to hunt such animals, (or take them); for this is true so long as no civil law intervenes, just as Roman law left many things in that primitive state, concerning which other nations have made different provisions. In the treaty of the Kings of France and England, an agreement was made that the subjects of both might freely exercise fishing throughout the whole sea, which on this side is bounded by the ports of Scarborough and Southampton, and on that side by Flanders and the mouth of the river Seine. Likewise the time is restricted from autumn to the following Kalends of January. Behold the limits set to fishing, both of place and of time, as Selden notes in Mare Clausum, in the aforesaid place. Therefore Princes may here prescribe a measure for their own subjects and for foreigners alike, either by agreement, or by force of authority, in their own strait. V. But in the river of some private person, belonging to him alone and to no others, it is lawful to fish only for the sole owner, not for others without the crime of theft: for it belongs to him as to
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96 Ioh. Loccenii privatum non publicum aut communem usum ac dominium pertinet l. 13. in fin. l. 14. D. de injur c. 25. Iuris Suet. Bygn. II. c. 29. Tius. II. 9. Si. nisi specialiter tale quid alii concessum sit à domino; aut nisi usus amnis pluribus vicinis pro portione adja- centium prædiorum communis sit. Vid. Oetinger lib. 1. de jure & controv. limit. c. 12. n. 29 & d c. 25. Bygn. c. 16. 17. Widerbo Pl. 14. HL. Quamvis verò pisces passim va- gantes ludentesque in stagnis, videantur in naturali sua libertate versari, atque sic oc- cupanti cedere; quod etiam volebat Ner- va IC. & solos pisces inclusos piscinæ à nobis possideri dicebat in l. 3. ß. 14. D. de ad- quir. vel amitt. possess. attamen nostro seculo rectius contraria opinio prævaluit, ut pis- ces etiam stagnis inclusi à nobis possidean- tur & in dominio nostro sint. quippe pis- ces non minus stagno privato includuntur, quam piscina: nec alio hæc differunt, quam quod altera angustior, altera laxior custo- dia est. Grot. de jur. bell. c. p. lib. 2. c. 8. ß. 2. Quid? quod termini piscationis limitibus distingui possunt, ut in jure Suetic. c. 6. Bygn. II. Vid. Oetinger. lib. 2. cap. 3. de jure & controvers. limit. ubi verò nulli sunt limites, per vices aut pro rata piscari moris est, si sit usus amnis pluribus communis qui pro- pe ripam prædia possident. arg. l. 31. ß. uno ff. de
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96 Ioh. Loccenii pertains to private, not public or common use and ownership. l. 13. in fin. l. 14. D. de injur c. 25. Iuris Suet. Bygn. II. c. 29. Tius. II. 9. Si. unless something of this kind has been specially granted to another by the owner; or unless the use of the river among several neighbors is common in proportion to the adjoining properties. Vid. Oetinger lib. 1. de jure & controv. limit. c. 12. n. 29 & d c. 25. Bygn. c. 16. 17. Widerbo Pl. 14. HL. Although, indeed, fish wandering about and playing in ponds seem to be in their natural liberty, and thus to yield to the occupier; which also was the view of Ner- va the jurist, and he said that only fish enclosed in a fishpond are possessed by us, in l. 3. ß. 14. D. de ad- quir. vel amitt. possess. nevertheless in our century the contrary opinion has more rightly prevailed, namely that fish enclosed in ponds are also possessed by us and are in our ownership. For fish are no less enclosed in a private pond than in a fishpool: nor do these differ otherwise than in that the one is a narrower, the other a broader place of custody. Grot. de jur. bell. c. p. lib. 2. c. 8. ß. 2. What then? Since the boundaries of fishing can be distinguished by limits, as in Swedish law c. 6. Bygn. II. Vid. Oetinger. lib. 2. cap. 3. de jure & controvers. limit. But where there are no limits, it is customary to fish by turns or in proportion, if the use of the river is common to several who possess properties near the bank. arg. l. 31. ß. uno ff. de
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 97 ff. de neg. gest. & per superiora, init. h. 9. Nee adeò ad rem facit, quod pisces non dicantur esse fundi, secundum juris subtilitatem l. 1 5. D. de act. emt. fundi enim propriè esse dicitur, quod terræ affixum est, & terra se tenet l. 17. eod. satis est quod in piscina & stagno nostro sunt, ejusque tanquam accellio & fructus. Vnde piscatio etiam ad fructuarium pertinet l. 9. 5. D. de ususr. nisi inundatio longior eam impediverit: quod tamen alluvio decedens restituere potest. l. 23. quib. mod. ususr. am. Sed & quasi possessionem juris piscandi in diverticulo maris aut fluminis publici sibi privatus longi temporis usu (inprimis qui memoriam hominum excedit) adquirere potest, & alium eodem jure uti prohibere. l. 7. D. de divers. temp. præscr. l. 45. D. de usurpat. nisi desinens uti, ante legitimum præscriptionis tempus jus suum amiserit. Si verò maris proprium jus, id est exigua maris portio in privatum fundum, ad exemplum villæ Luculli aliorumque, admissa sit (ut explicat Grot. d lib. 2, 3, 10.) vel diverticulum maris ad aliquem pertineat, & ille animum possidendi non interrupto plurium annorum usu testatus sit, & tamen prohibeatur jus suum usurpare, interdictum uti possidetis ei competere Paulus dixit: quia ad privatam non publicam E cau-
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De Iure Maritimo, Lib. I. 97 ff. de neg. gest. & per superiora, init. h. 9. Nor does it very much bear on the matter that fish are not said to belong to the soil, according to the subtlety of the law. l. 15. D. de act. emt. For that is properly said to be of the soil which is affixed to the earth and holds to the earth. l. 17. eod. It is enough that they are in our fishpond and pool, as an accession and fruit thereof. Hence fishing also belongs to the usufructuary. l. 9. 5. D. de ususr. unless a longer flooding has prevented it: though the receding alluvion may restore it. l. 23. quib. mod. ususr. am. But by long use also, especially such as exceeds the memory of men, a private person may acquire a quasi-possession of the right of fishing in an inlet of the sea or of a public river, and may forbid another from using the same right. l. 7. D. de divers. temp. præscr. l. 45. D. de usurpat. unless, ceasing to use it, he has lost his right before the lawful time of prescription. But if a private right in the sea, that is, a small portion of the sea in a private estate, is admitted, after the example of the villa of Lucullus and others (as Grotius explains, lib. 2, 3, 10), or if an inlet of the sea belongs to someone, and he has shown an intention of possession by uninterrupted use over a number of years, and yet is prevented from exercising his right, Paulus said that the interdict uti possidetis belongs to him: because it pertains to private, not public, e cau-
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98 Ioh. Loccenii causam hæc res pertinet, & de jure fruend[us] agitur l 14. D. de injur. quod juri naturæ convenire Grotius dicto loco confirmat. Extra diverticulum verò maris idem juris non erit, ne communis usus impediatur. Ante ædes igitur meas aut prætorium ad mare situm ut piscari aliquem prohibeam, usurpatum quidem est, tametsi nullo jure; adeo ut Vlpianus, si quis prohibeatur, injuriarum agi posse dicat l. 13. ß. 7. D. de injur. Grot. Mar. lib. c. 5. p. m. 48. In lacu tamen qui mei dominii est, utique piscari aliquem prohibere possum. in fin. l. 13. de injur. nihil remorante, quod pisces dum in lacusunt, in naturali sua laxitate versari videantur. Cujac. lib. 4. obs. c. 2. lacus enim meus est, ergo & proventus fructusque ejus. per sup. notata. Si quis duorum maritimorum fundorum dominus unum vendat, alterum retineat, eique hanc legem vel conditionem det, ne ab emtore contra eum in certo maris loco certarum specierum piscatio exerceatur; quamvis mari quod natura omnibus patet, servitus privata lege imponi nequeat; quia tamen bona fides legem contractus servari exposcit, persona possidentis & in ejus locum succedentis per hanc venditionis legem obligatur. l. venditor fundi D. comm. præd. idque naturali æquitati consentaneum est. quod etiam
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98 Ioh. Loccenius this matter concerns the case, and the question is about the right to enjoy it; l. 14. D. de injur. which Grotius in the cited passage confirms to be in accordance with natural law. But beyond the bend of the sea the same right will not exist, lest common use be impeded. Thus, before my house or fort situated by the sea, if I forbid someone to fish, this is indeed customary, though without any right; so much so that Ulpian says that, if someone is prevented, an action for injuries can be brought, l. 13. §. 7. D. de injur. Grot. Mar. lib. c. 5. p. m. 48. In a lake, however, which is under my ownership, I can certainly forbid someone to fish. in fin. l. 13. de injur. with nothing preventing it, since fish, while they are in the lake, seem to be moving in their natural freedom. Cujac. lib. 4. obs. c. 2. for the lake is mine, and therefore its produce and fruits are mine as well. per sup. notata. If the owner of two maritime estates sells one and retains the other, and gives him this law or condition, that the buyer shall not fish against him in a certain place in the sea for certain species; although a private servitude cannot be imposed on the sea, which by nature lies open to all, nevertheless, because good faith requires that the law of the contract be observed, the person of the possessor and of him who succeeds in his place is bound by this law of sale. l. venditor fundi D. comm. præd. and this is in accordance with natural equity. which also
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 99 etiam in territorio & lege populorum posse locum habere, notat Grotius cap. 5. Mar. lib. VI. Pisces custodiæ causa piscinæ immissos rebus hæreditariis annumerari, & ad possessoris defuncti hæredes pertinere, extra dubium est, per l. 15. ff. de act. emt. & l. 3. ß. 14 ff. de adq. possess. Sed si pisces multiplicationis causa in stagneum sint conjecti, cedere hæredibus defuncti possessoris aut vasalli eo tempore, quo stagneum mox est piscabile, Pragmatici notant: fructus enim de proximo recolligendos pro recollectis haberi. Carp[us] Zov. Iur. for. 3, 32, 26. At si tempus mortis magis est propinquum tempori immissionis piscium in stagneum quam piscationi, tunc pisces unà cum fundo ad novum possesorem pertinent. Idem d. loc. def. 27. VII. Cuicunque verò vel in mari aut flumine publico, vel eorum diverticulo piscari fas & jus est, ita piscabitur, ne per id usus navigationis impediatur. l. 1. & toto tit. D. Ne quid in flum. pub. Theodericus Rex Gothorum apud Cassiodorum lib. V. Var. Ep. XX. Comperimus quosdam sepibus cursum fluminis, quantum ad navigandi studium pertineat, incidisse. quod volumus modis omnibus amputare. nec tale aliquid permittatis quenquam ultra præsumere, sed invio- lati E 2
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On Maritime Law, Book I. 99 also in territory and by the law of nations it can have force, notes Grotius, chap. 5. Mar. lib. VI. Fish placed in a pond for the sake of custody are beyond doubt to be reckoned among inherit- able things, and belong to the heirs of the deceased possessor, by l. 15. ff. de act. emt. & l. 3. §. 14 ff. de adq. possess. But if fish have been put into a fishpond for the sake of multiplication, the Pragmatici note that they pass to the heirs of the deceased possessor or vassal at the time when the pond is soon to be fishable: for fruits to be gathered in the near future are treated as already gathered. Carp[us] Zov. Iur. for. 3, 32, 26. But if the time of death is nearer to the time of putting the fish into the pond than to the fishing, then the fish together with the land belong to the new possessor. Idem d. loc. def. 27. VII. But whoever has the right and the liberty either in the sea or in a public river, or in their branch, to fish, shall fish in such a way that the use of navigation is not hindered thereby. l. 1. & tot. tit. D. Ne quid in flum. pub. Theoderic King of the Goths apud Cassiodorum lib. V. Var. Ep. XX. We have learned that certain persons by means of hedges have cut into the course of the river, so far as it concerns the interest of navigation. This we wish to cut off by all means. Do not permit anyone to presume anything of the sort any further, but unviolated E 2
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100 Ioh. Loccenii lati alvei tractus navium relinquatur excur- sibus. Scimus enim retibus non sepibus esse piscandum. CAP. X. De Jure Stapulæ. I. An jus Stapulæ stringat liberum commer- ciorum & navigationis usum. II. Stapulæ & Geranii etymon. III. Quid sit jus Stapulæ. IV. Vnde ortum ducat. quis ejus finis. V. Distinguendum à Nundinis. pendet à jure emporii. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Quibus modis ad- quiratur & usurpetur. XI. Negotiationum libertati non posse præ- judicare in universum, & mercibus non expressis Stapulæ jus. XII. Excipitur casus necessitatis & annonæ caritatis. XIII. Obligati ad exponendas certo loco mer- ces, novas elusiones non quærent. I. Sed nonne Ius Stapulæ liberum navi- gationis & commerciorum cursum sistere aut ei præjudicare videtur, dum certo locomerces sistit ac moratur? Hoc disqui- rere
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100 Ioh. Loccenii Let the broad stretch of the channel be left for the passage of ships by excursion. For we know that fishing is to be done not with nets but with fences. CHAP. X. On the Right of Staple. I. Whether the right of staple restrains the free use of commerce and navigation. II. The etymology of Stapulæ and Geranium. III. What the right of staple is. IV. Whence it derives its origin. What its end is. V. It is to be distinguished from fairs. It depends on the right of the emporium. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. By what means it is acquired and exercised. XI. It cannot in general prejudice the freedom of trade, and the right of staple in respect of goods not expressly named. XII. The case of necessity and the scarcity of provisions is excepted. XIII. Those bound to expose their wares in a certain place will not seek new evasions. I. But does not the right of staple seem to stop or prejudice the free course of navigation and commerce, when it detains and delays goods at a fixed place? To inquire into this
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 101 rere operæ est. Sed ordine progrediemur, dum hoc argumentum excuti dignum tractamus: deque ejus origine & naturâ paulò accuratius agemus. II. Stapula non à stabulando, ut non- nulli volunt, dicta est, quasi certis locis merces stabulentur, sed à voce mercatori- bus nostratibus usitata Stapel appellatur, quod velut in gradus erectionem & coa- cervationem rerum, inprimis mercium si- gnat. Inde alia cognata nomina deducta sunt, ut Stapa, quod veteribus Saxonibus forum fuit, & Staplum pro tribunali. Cl. Salmasius cap V. Observat ad Ius Atticum & Rom. A pæpè dicuntur, qui omnia quorum vita indiget ad victum suppeditant. Stapam vulgò dicimus ex antiquo Sa- xonico Stapen/ quod forum Latinè expositum in vetustissimo Lexico Latino Saxonico olim videre memini apud Marquardum Freberum Heidelbergæ. Inde facere stapam, vulgò di- cimus, quod Græcis erat pæpè, Latinè commeatum præbere. Itaque Stapa est à Stapel quod in foro in acervum essent erectæ & cumulatæ hujusmodi res quæ ad annonam vel commeatum spectabant. Et Staplum Regis pro tribunali accipitur in Legibus Ripuariorum tit. 33. ß. 1. tit. 65. ß. 5. tit. 75. ita dictum à Germ. Stap vel Staffel gradu, quod ad illud tribunal, sug- gestu E 3
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De Iure Maritimo, Lib. I. 101 is a matter of some labor. But we shall proceed in order, while we treat this subject as worthy of examination: and we shall speak somewhat more accurately about its origin and nature. II. Stapula was not so called from stabulando, as some wish, as if goods were housed in fixed places, but from a word used by our merchants, Stapel, which signifies, as it were, the erection into stages and the heaping together of things, especially merchandise. From this other cognate names have been derived, such as Stapa, which among the ancient Saxons was a market, and Staplum for a tribunal. The learned Salmasius, chap. V. Observations on the Attic and Roman law, notes that pæpè they are called who supply all things of which life has need for sustenance. We commonly say stapam from the ancient Saxon Stapen, which was explained in Latin as forum, as I once remember having seen in the oldest Latin-Saxon lexicon at Heidelberg, in the possession of Marquardus Freberus. Hence we commonly say facere stapam, which among the Greeks was pæpè, in Latin, to provide supplies for a journey. Therefore Stapa is from Stapel, because in the market such things as were concerned with food supply or provisions were raised up and piled into a heap. And Staplum Regis is understood as a tribunal in the Laws of the Ripuarians, tit. 33. § 1. tit. 65. § 5. tit. 75, so called from the German Stap or Staffel, a step, because to that tribunal, by a raised platform, E 3
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Ioh. Loccenii 102 gestu quodam erectum, gradibus adscenderetur. inde Svedicum quoque flectstapul/ turris, vel locus campanis destinatus, deductum, & Stapulstädet / civitates quæ jure stapulæ gaudent. Stapulæ jus alio quoque nomine jus Geranii nuncupatur. quid hîc esset Geranium, primò dubitavi. Sed ubi penitius vocem excussi, notionem ejus deprehendisse visus sum. Vt enim Stapel est vetus vox Gotho-Teutonica, ita hanc quoque esse puto, dictam vulgò Kranæ/ quæ signat Saxonibus & Belgis gruem, ut & machinam illam tractoriam, quam aliàs rotam aut tympanum versatile mechanici vocant, quo circumacto in exoneratione navis sustolluntur & in terram demittuntur vasta onera & graves ac ponderosæ merces. quod à Vitruvio lib. X. de Architecture cap. IV. & à Philandro in Notis ad dictum locum Vitruvii ita describitur: Tympanum quod Græci etiam appellant, est rotæ ambitus magni genus, cujus circumactæ, calcantibus hominibus affixas pro gradibus regulas, axis fune obvolvitur, atque ita onera extolluntur, aut sublata deprimuntur. Ejusdem meminit Lucretius lib. IV. Multaque per trochleas, et tympana ponderemagno Commovet, atque levi sustollit machina visu. Huic
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Ioh. Loccenii 102 by a certain gesture, it was mounted by steps. Hence the Swedish also flectstapul/ tower, or place assigned to bells, and Stapulstädet / cities which enjoy the right of staple. The right of staple is also called by another name the right of Geranium. what Geranium might here mean, I first doubted. But when I examined the word more closely, I seemed to have discovered its meaning. For as Stapel is an old Gothico-Teutonic word, so I think this also to be such, commonly called Kranæ/ which among the Saxons and Belgians signifies a crane, and also that lifting machine, which mechanics otherwise call a wheel or revolving drum, by which, when turned in the unloading of a ship, vast burdens and heavy and weighty merchandise are hoisted up and lowered to the ground. This is thus described by Vitruvius, book X, On Architecture, chapter IV, and by Philander in the notes to that passage of Vitruvius: The drum, which the Greeks also call, is a kind of large wheel-like circumference, around which, when turned, the beam is wound with a rope, while men tread on attached rungs as steps, and thus the loads are lifted, or, when raised, lowered. Lucretius makes mention of the same thing, book IV. And by means of pulleys and drums it greatly moves heavy weights, and with a light machine lifts them up to sight. To this
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 103 Huic machinæ tractoriæ gruis nomen inditum est à formæ quadam similitudine, quod axem quasi rostrum gruis protendit. rostrum verò gruis Græcis est , inde geranium Lat. Est ergo jus Geranii per metonymiam idem quod jus exonerationis, quæ inter cetera fit etiam illâ machinâ tractoriâ. Huc referas illud Lehmanni in Chronico Spir. lib. 4 c. 22. p. m. 363. Die ander erzenschafft oder gerechtigkeit der Staffel ist von alters gewesen/ vnd noch/ nemlich Kauffhaus/ Kranen/ Schiffer vnd Kärcher/ desgleichen/ Kauffhaus Obhern/ Kranenmeister &c. Hoc jus Geranii, vel exonerationis Germani aliàs vocant Rinderlage. III. Ius Stapulæ est potestas sistendi in suo foro restringendique merces, speciali emporii beneficio certis civitatibus competens. Boxhornius in Theatro Hollandiæ, ubi de Dordrecht loquitur, ita describit: Est Stapulæ jus quo potestas conceditur aliunde invectis mercibus quasi manum injiciendi, ab instituto cursu retrahendi, ac denique ita sistendi, ut non prius, quam publico foro divenditæ ibi fuerint, alio transferantur. IV. Est hoc jus vetus, cum crescente mercatura introductum, priscisque Græcis dudum usurpatum, ut inf. h.cap.ß. IX. indicabo. Inprimis in illis locis institutum, ubi commoditate situs, maris & fluminis pub. E 4 bene-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 103 This drawing machine has been given the name of a crane from a certain similarity of form, because the axle extends like the beak of a crane. The beak of a crane, however, in Greek is geranium, hence in Latin geranium. Therefore the jus Geranii is by metonymy the same as the right of unloading, which among other things is also done by that drawing machine. To this refer what Lehmann says in Chronico Spir. lib. 4 c. 22. p. m. 363. “Die ander erzenschafft oder gerechtigkeit der Staffel ist von alters gewesen/ vnd noch/ nemlich Kauffhaus/ Kranen/ Schiffer vnd Kärcher/ desgleichen/ Kauffhaus Obhern/ Kranenmeister &c.” This jus Geranii, or right of unloading, the Germans otherwise call Rinderlage. III. The Ius Stapulæ is the power of stopping goods in its market and restricting them, a special privilege of the emporium belonging to certain cities. Boxhornius in the Theatrum Hollandiæ, where he speaks of Dordrecht, describes it thus: “It is the right of Stapula by which power is granted over goods brought in from elsewhere, as it were to lay hold of them, to draw them back from their intended course, and finally to stop them in such a way that they are not transferred elsewhere until they have first been sold there in the public market. IV. This right is ancient, having been introduced with the growth of commerce, and long ago used by the ancient Greeks, as I shall indicate below in chapter ß. IX. It was instituted especially in those places where, by the convenience of their situation, of the sea and of public rivers, E 4 bene-
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Ioh. Loccenii 104 beneficio jus emporii exerceri potuit. Facit jus Stapulæ ad urbium & commerciorum incrementum, ad copiam annonæ & mercium, ad subsidia reipub. opesque parandas. Scopus ejus præcipuus est utilitas reip. aut peculiarium civitatum: ne exteri promiscua rerum necessariarum coemtione indigenarum commerciis incommodent; sed ut ipsi hujus rei quæstum ad se & ad suum forum transferant. V. Non tamen jus Stapulæ cum Nundinis, quæ statis temporibus celebrantur, est confundendum: cum multæ civitates jus mercatus generalis ac nundinarum habeant, quæ tamen jus Stapulæ non habent; nisi & hoc peculiariter sibi concessum probare possint. unde in definitione juris Stapulæ dixi, speciali emporii beneficio competere. Pendet enim jus Stapulæ à jure emporii. Et qui jus emporii, id est jus de exponendis mercibus habet, transeuntes merces ad suum portum & forum trahere potest. Chytræus Saxon. Hist. p. 1. ad annum MDXI. Vladislaus emporii veteris jura tunc Vratislaviæ innovavit, ne quis Polonus aut Germanus negociandi caussa Vratislaviam præteriret, sed utraque gens Vratislaviæ merces suas deponere ac vendere cogeretur. VI. Illud autem jus emporii non privata authoritate, nec aliquo prætextu juris aut
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Ioh. Loccenii 104 by which means the staple right could be exercised. The law of the Staple contributes to the increase of cities and commerce, to the abundance of grain and merchandise, and to the provision of resources and wealth for the commonwealth. Its chief aim is the advantage of the state, or of particular cities: namely, that foreigners, by a promiscuous buying up of necessary goods, may not inconvenience the trade of the inhabitants; but rather that they themselves transfer the profit of this business to themselves and to their own market. V. However, the right of the Staple is not to be confused with Fairs, which are celebrated at fixed times: since many cities have the right of a general market and of fairs, yet do not have the right of the Staple; unless they can prove that this also has been specially granted to them. Hence in the definition of the right of the Staple I said that it belongs by a special privilege of the emporium. For the right of the Staple depends on the right of the emporium. And whoever has the right of the emporium, that is, the right of exposing goods for sale, can draw passing merchandise to his own port and market. Chytræus, Saxon. Hist. p. 1, under the year 1511: Vladislaus renewed the rights of the old emporium at Breslau, so that no Pole or German should pass by Breslau for the sake of trading, but both peoples were compelled to deposit and sell their goods at Breslau. VI. But that right of the emporium neither by private authority, nor under any pretext of law or
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 105 aut onerum præstationis in mari, sed certis & legitimis modis adquiri potest & debet: nimirum ex privilegiis superioris qui jura majestatis habet; vel ex præscriptione me- moriam hominum excedente, vel ex lege pactisque liberarum civitatum aut rerum- pub. VII. Rex aut Princeps qui nullum su- periorem agnoscit (etiamsi forte alterius majestatem comiter observet) Stapulæ jus haud dubiè concedere potest: cum habeat authoritatem condendæ legis, aut contra eam ex usu pub. dispensandi. l. ult. Cod. de Legib. Befold. in Thesaur. Pract. in v. Stafs felgerechtigkeit. Si tamen privilegium ex falsa relatione ac importunitate petentis vel ob- rept itè in fraudem alterius à Principe im- petratum sit, impetranti non prodesse, nec aliis obesse æquius est. l. 3. C. qui legit. p. s. i. i. h. l. 5. C. si contra jus vel ut. p. Edict. Theuderici Regis Gothor. c 129. Et quamvis Principis sit æstimare, quem modum sui beneficii esse velit l. 191 de reg. jur. non ta- men præsumitur alteri jus quæsitum privilegio velle auferre: ne ex beneficio fiat injuria l. 6. Cod. unde vi. Elb. Leonin. consil. 67. n 3. Moris enim non est, beneficia ad alienam injuriam porrigi l. 4. Cod. de emanc. lib. VIII. Insuper antiqua consuetudine & E 5 usu,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 105 or the right of levying charges in the sea, but it can and ought to be acquired only in certain and lawful ways: namely, from the privileges of a superior who has the rights of majesty; or from prescription exceeding the memory of men; or from law and the agreements of free cities or common- wealths. VII. A King or Prince who acknowledges no superior (even if perhaps he courteously observes the majesty of another) can undoubtedly grant the right of staple; since he has authority to make law, or to dispense against it from the use of the commonwealth. l. ult. Cod. de Legib. Befold. in Thesaur. Pract. in v. Stafs felgerechtigkeit. If, however, a privilege has been obtained from the Prince through a false representation and the importunity of the petitioner, or by surreptitious means to the fraud of another, it is more equitable that it should not benefit the petitioner, nor harm others. l. 3. C. qui legit. p. s. i. i. h. l. 5. C. si contra jus vel ut. p. Edict. Theuderici Regis Gothor. c 129. And although it is the Prince's prerogative to judge what manner he wishes his favor to take l. 191 de reg. jur. it is nevertheless not presumed that he wishes to take away another's acquired right by privilege: lest from a benefit injury be made l. 6. Cod. unde vi. Elb. Leonin. consil. 67. n 3. For it is not customary for favors to be extended to another's injury l. 4. Cod. de emanc. lib. VIII. Moreover by ancient custom and E 5 usage,
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Ioh. Loccenii 106 usu, vel longa præscriptione juris emporii stapulæque possessionem vel quasi firmari constat. Eam tamen continuam, nec interruptam esse oportet: nec ut ei per contrariam observationem vel usum, protestationem & interpellationem legitimam sit contraventum arg. l.1.2. Cod. de præscr. long. temp. Aretin. consil. I I. n.4. Cumprimis hic locum habet præscriptio memoriam hominum excedens, quæ vim privilegii & instar legis habet. arg. l.2. D. de aq. & aq. pl. Klock de Contribut. cap. I. n.272. IX. Sed & liberæ Respublicæ ac Civitates, quæ jus imperii habent, de certis mercibus non aliò quam in suum emporium importandis pacisci possunt, aut legem condere. Talem Atheniensium legem refert Demosthenes in orat. contra Phormionem, quæ extremum illi supplicium minitatur, qui Achemis habitans aliò quopiam frumentum vexerit, quam in Articum mercatium. ei πεικῶν Αθλύσεν, αποδίνον στηγοειν, η εἰς τὸ Ατλικῶν εμποειν. X. Ab illis verò, quibus licet, hoc jus ita usurpabitur, ut ultra licitum non extendatur, & ut in certis ac specialibus constituatur mercibus, & ad certa restringatur loca: ne una respub. civitas aut provincia monopolium orbis, aut plurium urbium & provinciarum (contra l. un. Cod. de monopol.)
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Ioh. Loccenii 106 by use, or by long prescription, the possession of the staple-right and staple-town is held as established, or as it were established. Yet it ought to be continuous and uninterrupted; nor may it be opposed by contrary practice or use, by legitimate protestation and interruption. arg. l.1.2. Cod. de præscr. long. temp. Aretin. consil. I I. n.4. Above all here applies the prescription exceeding the memory of men, which has the force of a privilege and the effect of a law. arg. l.2. D. de aq. & aq. pl. Klock de Contribut. cap. I. n.272. IX. But free republics and cities as well, which have the right of sovereignty, may make agreements, or enact a law, that certain goods are to be imported nowhere else than into their own staple market. Demosthenes reports such a law of the Athenians in the speech against Phormion, which threatens the severest penalty to anyone who, while living at Aegina, shall have carried grain anywhere other than to the market of Attica. [Greek text as in source] X. But those to whom it is permitted shall exercise this right in such a way that it does not extend beyond what is allowed, and that it be established for certain and specific merchandise, and restricted to certain places: lest one republic, city, or province set up a monopoly over the world, or over many cities and provinces (against l. un. Cod. de monopol.)
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 107 nopol.) exercere velle videatur: neu quod toti corpori debetur, partis alicujus ex privato arbitrio fiat. id enim directè pugnaret contra pub. utilitatem & communem societatem: quod ne quidem permissu Im- ratoris licet. d. l. un. C. de monopol. l. 6. Cod. si contra jus vel util. p. (monopolii tamen limitationem vid. apud Grotium de jur. b. e. p. 2, 12. 16.) Tum & pro mercibus desti- nato loco exponendis æquum, non ni- mium exigatur portorium. Pro iisdem in vendendo & emendo justum exigatur & solvatur pretium, non quantum illicita conventione pactum sit d. l. un. quæ est in- juria, reparatione digna. Grot. d loc. Sed & invehentes, bonæ notæ merces adferant: quæ in nonnullis locis ab inspectoribus recognosci, & improbæ rejici solent. Leh- man d. Chr. Spir. Limnaus lib. 2. Iur. pub. c. 9. n. 32. XI. Licet ergo negociatio & navigatio libera sit in mari & fluminibus publicis na- vigabilibus, hoc tamen salvo jure Stapulæ intelligi volunt. vid. Leonin. d. consil. Lin- dem. in Exeges. de jure protimis. th. 26. Et quamvis nemo cogi possit, ut hoc vel illo loco exponat merces suas Mynsing. cons. 19. n. 3. & contra cogentem mandata sine clausula, ut vocant, decerni obtinerique possint Sixtin. de Regal. lib 2. c. 3. n. 40. 41. E 6 - extra
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. I. 107 to wish to exercise a monopoly): nor should that which is owed to the whole body be made, at the private discretion of any part. For that would directly conflict with the public utility and the common society: which is not even permissible with the Emperor’s authorization. d. l. un. C. de monopol. l. 6. Cod. si contra jus vel util. p. (for the limitation of monopoly, however, see Grotius de jur. b. e. p. 2, 12. 16.) Then also, for goods to be displayed at the appointed place, let the customs duty be just, not excessive. For the same goods, in buying and selling, let a fair price be exacted and paid, not whatever has been agreed by an unlawful bargain d. l. un. which is an injury deserving reparation. Grot. d loc. But let those who bring goods also bring merchandise of good quality: which in some places are accustomed to be examined by inspectors, and the bad to be rejected. Lehm. d. Chr. Spir. Limnaus lib. 2. Iur. pub. c. 9. n. 32. XI. Therefore, although trade and navigation are free in the sea and in public navigable rivers, nevertheless this is understood with the right of staple reserved. vid. Leonin. d. consil. Lindem. in Exeges. de jure protimis. th. 26. And although no one can be compelled to sell his goods at this or that place, Mynsing. cons. 19. n. 3. and, against one who compels, mandates without a clause, as they call it, may be decreed and obtained Sixtin. de Regal. lib 2. c. 3. n. 40. 41. E 6 - extra
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Ioh. Loccenii extra territorium enim suum jus dicenti impune non paretur l.20. D. de jurisdict. l.1. ß.1. D. quod quisque jur. & quod juris gentium ac publicè utile est, privatorum pactis mutari nequit l.38. D. de pact. attamen Princeps vi imperii in suas terras & portus cogere potest etiam peregrinos in ipsius terris mercantes, ne ad quosvis & vetitos, sed licitos portus naves suas appellant ibique negocientur. vid. Ordinat. Gustavi Magni de Mercat. art.1. & diplomata de civit. Stapul. Et quibus civitatibus hoc privilegium concessum est, ne quis eas prætervehatur aut præternaviget cum certis mercibus, sed ibi merces suas venum exponat, illæ jus & facultatem restringendi merces ad suum portum, etiam invitis dominis mercium, habent. Besold. in Thesaure. Pract. d loc. Mev. in Iur. Lub. lib 3. tit. 6. art.7. n.7 8.9.10. Quod quamvis durum esse & libertati commerciorum præjudicare, alienoque juri derogare videatur; aliud tamen sentiendum erit, si civitas hoc speciale beneficium à Principe rite impetrarit l 2. ß. si quis à Principe D. ne quid in loco pub. Fab. in Reg. Iur. 191. p. m. 755. Peregrini quoque in aliquo loco versantes, negociantes & contrahentes, tanquam subditi temporarii, legibus & juri istius loci subjiciuntur. Grot. de jure b. e. p.2,11,5. Illa
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Ioh. Loccenii for he who gives judgment outside his own territory is not obeyed with impunity. l. 20. D. de jurisdict. l. 1. §. 1. D. quod quisque jur. & quod juris gentium, and what is publicly useful, cannot be changed by the agreements of private persons. l. 38. D. de pact. However, the Prince, by force of his authority, can compel even foreigners who are trading in his lands into his own lands & ports, so that they may not direct their ships to any and all forbidden places, but to lawful ports, and there carry on business. vid. Ordinat. Gustavi Magni de Mercat. art. 1. & diplomata de civit. Stapul. And those cities to which this privilege has been granted, that no one may pass by them or sail past them with certain goods, but there expose their goods for sale, have the right and power of restricting goods to their own port, even against the will of the owners of the goods. Besold. in Thesaure. Pract. d loc. Mev. in Iur. Lub. lib 3. tit. 6. art. 7. n. 7 8. 9. 10. Although this may seem harsh and prejudicial to the freedom of commerce, and derogatory to another’s right; yet a different view must be taken, if a city has duly obtained this special privilege from the Prince. l. 2. §. si quis à Principe D. ne quid in loco pub. Fab. in Reg. Iur. 191. p. m. 755. Foreigners also, while staying in some place, trading and contracting, are subjected, as temporary subjects, to the laws and right of that place. Grot. de jure b. e. p. 2, 11, 5. There
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De Iure Maritimo Lib.1. 109 Illa tamen peculiaria jura & beneficia libertati navigandi in totum, aut mercium, privilegio non expressarum, arbitrariæ evectioni frenum injicere nequeunt. nisi extrema necessitas aliud in singulari casu facere compellat. XII. Necessitas enim exemta legi in gravi annonæ penuria non solùm prohibere potest evectionem frumenti domestici, sed etiam, si hoc non suppetat aut sufficiat, Magistratus in mari navigantes adigere potest, ut in civitates annonæ penuriâ laborantes advehant frumentum ibique pro justo pretio vendant; etiamsi ejus in privilegio de jure Stapulæ mentio facta non sit l.1.2. Cod. ut nem. lic. in emt spec. se exc Ita Byzantini in pari casu naves frumentarias Atticorum ad se diverti & frumentum venum exponere compulerunt, ut notat Aristoteles 2. Oeconom. vid. & c.3.1. Iur. Suet. de proces. cur. Cessante tamen necessitate hoc onus relaxandum est, cum non sit perpetuum, sed stante solùm necessitate duret. Aliàs negociatores & navicularis domestici, qui annonæ ultrò serviunt, immunitate quadam gaudent in 1.L. R. l.5. ß.3.4. 5.6. D. de jure immun. nec detineri ullo modo, nec exactionem ullam pati debent. l.1. Cod. de Navicular. & in eam Peck. & Vinn. XIII. Qui
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De Iure Maritimo Lib.1. 109 Yet those special rights and benefits cannot, by privilege not expressly stated, wholly restrain the freedom of navigation, or the shipment of goods not named in the privilege, unless extreme necessity in a particular case compels otherwise. XII. For necessity, being excepted from the law, in a severe scarcity of grain may not only forbid the export of domestic grain, but also, if this does not suffice or is not available, the magistrate may compel ships sailing at sea to carry grain into cities suffering from a shortage of food, and there sell it at a just price; even though no mention of this be made in the privilege concerning the right of Staple. l.1.2. Cod. ut nem. lic. in emt spec. se exc Ita Byzantines in a similar case compelled the grain ships of the Athenians to turn toward them and expose their grain for sale, as Aristotle notes, 2 Oeconom. vid. & c.3.1. Iur. Suet. de proces. cur. However, when necessity has ceased, this burden must be relaxed, since it is not perpetual, but endures only while the necessity continues. Otherwise, merchants and domestic shipowners, who of their own accord serve the supply of grain, enjoy a certain immunity in 1.L. R. l.5. ß.3.4. 5.6. D. de jure immun. and ought by no means to be detained or to suffer any exaction. l.1. Cod. de Navicular. & in eam Peck. & Vinn. XIII. Who
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XIII. Qui verò ad jus Stapulæ adstringuntur, illis non integrum est, ad hoc declinandum novas vias aut elusiones quærere: ne per indirectum sequantur, quod directò vetitum est. Nicol. Everard jun. consil. 9. n. 82. Qui plura de hac materia deliderant, conferre possunt, quæ de controversiis Iuris Stapulæ in Albi inter Reges Daniæ, Duces Hollatiæ & Hamburgenses non semel agitatis Thuanus & Chytræus in suis Historiis posteritati tradiderunt; ut & Acta istarum controversiarum utrinque publicè edita. Item Vbbonem Emmium in descriptione Groningæ pag. 45. 46. seqq. ubi de Groningensium & agricolarum controversia Iuris Stapulæ prolixè agit; & alios qui hanc materiam ex professo tractant. etsi mihi paucos videre contigit.
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XIII. But those who are bound by the staple right are not at liberty, in order to evade this, to seek new ways or devices: they may not pursue indirectly what is forbidden directly. Nicol. Everard jun. consil. 9. n. 82. Those who desire more on this subject may consult what Thuanus and Chytræus have handed down to posterity in their Histories concerning the controversies of the Staple Right at Albi, often discussed between the Kings of Denmark, the Dukes of Holland, and the Hamburgers; as well as the Acts of those controversies, published on both sides. Likewise Vbbonem Emmium in the description of Groningen, pp. 45, 46 et seq., where he at length discusses the controversy of the Groningers and the farmers concerning the Staple Right; and others who treat this matter expressly, though I have had occasion to see only a few of them.
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III Ioh. Loccenii De Jure Maritimo Et Navali. Liber Secundus. Caput I. De Navigationis Securitate. I. Continuatio propositi ordinis. II. De maris et navigationis incommodis et periculis. III. Istorum incommodorum metu non esse fa- giendam navigationem: cum etiam ter- restre iter habeat sua incommoda et pe- ricula. IV. Periculorum maritimorum remedia, divi- na et humana. V. Divina quæ. VI. Humana triplicia. VII. Ratione maris, fluminum et portus. VIII. Ratione domini mercium et vectorum. IX. Ratione magistri navis et nautarum. X. Alia quædam specialia remedia et mu- nimenta adversus hostes et prædones maris, procellæ et naufragii periculum, in sequentia capita remittuntur. I. Post-
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III Joh. Loccenii On Maritime and Naval Law. Book Second. Chapter I. On the Security of Navigation. I. Continuation of the intended order. II. On the inconveniences and dangers of the sea and of navigation. III. That navigation is not to be avoided from fear of these inconveniences, since even travel by land has its inconveniences and dangers. IV. Remedies for maritime dangers, divine and human. V. What the divine remedies are. VI. The human remedies are threefold. VII. With respect to the sea, rivers, and harbor. VIII. With respect to the owner of the goods and the passengers. IX. With respect to the master of the ship and the sailors. X. Certain other special remedies and safeguards against enemies and sea robbers, and against the danger of storm and shipwreck, are referred to the following chapters. I. Post-
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Ioh. Laccenii 112 I. Postquam navi fabricatæ & instructæ maris viam quasi aperuimus, & jure navigari ostendimus, nunc quibus modis etiam tuta navigatio præstari possit, exponemus. II. Quamvis autem magna sint maris & navigationis commoda, magna tamen quoque pericula, incommoda & mala circumstant navigantes, metuenda ex procellis, syrtibus, cæcis & latentibus scopulis, hostibus, piratis, aliisque adversis: quæ à Plinio libr. II. Nat. Hist. cap. XLVI. & proem.lib.XIV. & alibi, Propertio lib. II. eleg. VI. & aliis luculenter descripta sunt. III. Veruntamen ob adversa non aversanda est navigatio: quum ne quidem in terrâ desint mala, quæ bona comitantur; ob quæ tamen bona non fugimus. Agricola quidam fertur aliquando ex nauta quæsivisse, ubi parens ejus & avus mortem appetiissent; respondit nauta: vel in navi, vel in mari. Agricola, Cur ergo, inquit, tu navem & mare non reformidas & vitas? Nauta reponens, interrogavit rusticum, ubi ejus majores obiissent, respondit rusticus: Domi & in lecto; cur ergo, inquit nauta, domum & lectum non horres ac refugis? Sic enim se res habet, tam terra, quam mari curæ, pericula ac metus se socios
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Ioh. Laccenii 112 I. After we have, as it were, opened the path of the sea by the construction and fitting-out of a ship, and have shown that it may rightly be navigated, we shall now explain by what means a safe voyage may also be provided. II. Although the advantages of the sea and of navigation are great, great dangers, inconveniences, and evils also surround those who sail, to be feared from storms, sandbanks, hidden and concealed rocks, enemies, pirates, and other adverse things: these have been clearly described by Pliny, book II of the Natural History, chapter XLVI, and in the preface to book XIV, and elsewhere, by Propertius, book II, elegy VI, and others. III. Nevertheless, navigation is not to be shunned because of adverse things; since even on land there are not lacking evils that accompany good things, and yet we do not flee those good things on that account. A certain farmer is said once to have asked a sailor where his father and grandfather had met their deaths; the sailor replied: either on a ship or at sea. “Why then,” said the farmer, “do you not fear and avoid your ship and the sea?” The sailor, in turn, asked the rustic where his ancestors had died; he replied: at home and in bed. “Why then,” said the sailor, “do you not loathe and flee your house and bed?” For such is the case: on land as well as at sea, cares, dangers, and fears are companions.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 113 socios addunt vel invitis. Pulcrè Flaccus lib. II. Od. XIII. Quid quisque vitet, nunquam hominisatis Cautum est in horas. navita Bosphorum Pænus perborrescit, neque ultra Cæca timet aliunde fata. Idem lib. II. Od. XVI. Scandit æratas vitiosa naves Cura, nec turmas equitum relinquit Ocyor cervis, & agente nimbos Ocyor Euro. Idem repetit lib. III. Od I. Nonne in terra iter facientes sæpe quasi terrestre quoque nausfragium faciunt? dum gravi tempestate suborta in locis solis ac sterilibus, aut infidis arenis in æstate, aut acrihieme, & in viis superatu difficilibus ipsis nivibus obruuntur. Nonne quod in mari piratæ, hoc in terrâ latrones faciunt? præterquam quod bonorum jacturam modò in bello, modò incendio, modò alio casu facimus. Petronius Satyrico: Non sola mortalibus maria hanc fidem præstant. Illum bellantem arma decipiunt: illum diis vota reddentem penatum suorum ruina sepelit: ille vehiculo lapsus properantem spiritum excussit. cibus avidum strangulavit, abstinentem frugalitas. Si bene calculum ponas, ubique naufragium est. Verè ergo Hesiodus lib. I. oper. & dier. Plena
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 113 associates are added even against their will. Well said Flaccus lib. II. Od. XIII. What each man should avoid is never sufficiently watched for from hour to hour. The sailor greatly fears the Bosphorus, and no further does he dread blind fate from elsewhere. The same, lib. II. Od. XVI. Care climbs the brazen ships that are in fault, nor does it leave the troops of horsemen; swifter than deer, and swifter than the Euro driving the clouds. The same repeats, lib. III. Od. I. Do not those who travel on land often make, as it were, a shipwreck on land too? when, a heavy storm having arisen, in lonely and barren places, or on treacherous sands in summer, or in severe winter, and on roads difficult to pass, they are overwhelmed by the very snows. Do not what pirates do at sea, these same things robbers do on land? besides, we suffer the loss of our goods now in war, now by fire, now by some other accident. Petronius in the Satyricon: Not only seas confer this security on mortals. Arms deceive him who is fighting: vows paid to the gods bury another beneath the ruin of his household gods: another, thrown from his carriage, has lost his breath while hurrying on. Food has strangled the greedy man, frugality the abstinent. If you reckon rightly, there is shipwreck everywhere. Truly therefore Hesiod, lib. I. oper. & dier. Full
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114 Ioh. Loccenii Plena est terra malis, & plenum est æquor iisdem. IV. Vt tamen ista navigationis incommoda vel evitentur, vel minus infesta ac periculosa sint, adversus ea certis se præsidiis munire licet: quæ possunt esse divina & humana. IV. Præsidia divina, & quidem potissima, sunt Dei providentia & cura, ubique tam in mari quam terra præsens. Quum adquisitio rerum ex commodis maris vel navigatio inter benedictionis divinæ partes referarur Gen. 49. v. 13. Deut. 3. v. 19. vid. & sup. lib. 1. c. 1. & navis benedictum lignum appelletur Sap. 14. v. 7. non est dubitandum, quin si navigationem rectè instituentes se Deo commendent, Deus illos tanquam in via sua ambulantes servaturus sit. vid. Psal. 107. v. 23. & seqq. v. 28, 29. Sap. 14. v. 3, 4, 5, 6. Aut si illis in mari percundum sit, seria delictorum poenitudine ducti, & Christi merito nixi, Deo animas suas commendent: atque sic in vocatione sua beatè decedent. Si autem fluctibus obruto non contingat sepultura, non adeò interest, periturum corpus terra an fluctus consumant; Cælo tegitur, qui non habet urnam. Etiamsi verò fiat esca piscium corpus, nihilominus æquè particeps erit resurrectionis
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114 Ioh. Loccenii The earth is full of evils, and the sea is full of the same. IV. Yet in order that these inconveniences of navigation may either be avoided, or be less hostile and dangerous, it is permitted to fortify oneself against them with certain safeguards: these may be divine and human. IV. The divine safeguards, and indeed the chief ones, are God's providence and care, present everywhere, both at sea and on land. Since the obtaining of things from the advantages of the sea, or navigation, is reckoned among the blessings of God, Gen. 49. v. 13. Deut. 3. v. 19. vid. & sup. lib. 1. c. 1. and since the ship is called a blessed wood, Sap. 14. v. 7. there is no doubt that, if those who undertake navigation rightly commend themselves to God, God will preserve them as walking in His way. vid. Psal. 107. v. 23. & seqq. v. 28, 29. Sap. 14. v. 3, 4, 5, 6. Or if they must perish in the sea, having been brought to serious repentance for their sins, and relying on Christ's merit, let them commend their souls to God: and thus they will die blessedly in their calling. But if burial should not be granted to one overwhelmed by the waves, it matters not so much whether earth or the waves consume the body that is destined to perish; He is covered by heaven, who has no urn. And even if the body becomes the food of fish, nevertheless it will no less be a partaker of the resurrection
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 115 nis mortuorum & coelestis gloriæ in Christo Servatore decedens, atque alterius corpus in terrâ putrescens, vermiumque cibus. de quo divina testimonia omni exceptione majora habemus: Servat omnia ossa ejus; unum ex illis non frangitur. Psal. 34. v. 21. Et Apocal. 20. v. 13. Reddidit mare mortuos, quos habebat. VI. Post divina præsidia sunt humana, quæ hominum ingenio atque industria parari possunt; vel contemplatione maris, aluminum, & portuum; vel domini mercium & vectorum; vel magistri navis & nautarum iutuitu consideranda. VII. Contemplatione maris, aluminum & portus præsidia humana ita se pensanda obferunt: Vt impedimenta maris & aluminum tollantur, & omne id prohibeatur, quo deterior navigatio reddi possit. de quo in tit. Dig. de Flum. & Ne quid in flum. pub. Vt alumina, ubi commodè fieri potest, purgentur, retentur & profundiora reddantur, illorum jussu & authoritate, quorum ea de re potestas est. Ne saburra navium in mare aut flumen exoneretur, in fraudem & detrimentum profundi, sed aliò avehatur. quod etiam jure naut. Hanseatic. art. 39. cautum est. Vt non solum phari, speculæ & ignes nocturni, ad indicandum portum tutumque accessum, aliaque brevium
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 115 ... of the dead and of heavenly glory in Christ the Savior, departing, while another body, rotting in the earth, becomes food for worms. Of this we have divine testimonies greater than any exception: He keepeth all his bones; not one of them is broken. Psalm 34, v. 21. And Revelation 20, v. 13: The sea gave up the dead which were in it. VI. After divine protections come human ones, which may be provided by human ingenuity and industry; to be considered either by contemplation of the sea, of harbors, and ports; or by the owner of the goods and passengers; or by the master of the ship and the sailors. VII. By contemplation of the sea, the protections of channels and harbors are thus to be weighed: that the impediments of the sea and channels be removed, and whatever may hinder navigation be prevented, so that it may be made worse. Concerning this, see the title in the Digest, De Flum. and Ne quid in flum. pub. That channels, where it can conveniently be done, be cleared, kept open, and made deeper, by the command and authority of those who have power in that matter. That no ballast from ships be discharged into the sea or river, to the fraud and detriment of depth, but be carried elsewhere. This is also provided for in maritime law, Hanseatic, art. 39. That not only lighthouses, lookouts, and night fires, for indicating the harbor and safe approach, and other short
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116 Ioh. Loccenii vium signa excitentur, sed etiam vasa grandia ad fundum lapidibus & catenis defixa, & supra undas eminentia certis intervallis disponantur: unde profunditas maris exploretur, pulvini, syrtes ac vada evitentur; & ad istorum vaforum metas cursus innoxius dirigatur. E re quoque est, prohiberi naves istis vasibus alligari, ne loco transmoveantur. Iste autem modus vasa in flumine prominentia habendi (quod in transcursu notandum) non semper arguit dominium in mari aut flumine publico: cum etiam ab illis qui dominium tale sibi non vindicant, usurpari soleat in securitatem navigationis, & libertatem commerciorum illis in tali loco concessam. Ne navibus periculum sit à balenis, ubicunque illis mare est infestum, remedium fertur navigantibus, castoreum dilutum aqua & in mare effusum. Hoc tanquam aconito petitus grex balenarum, totus repente dissipatur & in profundum fertur; uti testatur Zieglerus in Schondiæ descriptione p. m. 485. Magistratus & præsides provinciæ præcaveant, ne piscatores noctulumine ostenso fallant navigantes, quasi in portum aliquem delaturi, eoque modo in periculum naves & qui in eo sunt deducant l. 10. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. Vtile quoque est, ut qui præcedunt & vela laxant, ignem in summâ navi
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116 Ioh. Loccenii signals of the way are raised, but also large vessels fixed to the bottom with stones and chains, and standing above the waves at certain intervals, are set out: whereby the depth of the sea is explored, and sandbanks, shoals, and shallows are avoided; and a safe course is directed toward the limits of those buoys. It is also useful to forbid ships from being tied to those buoys, lest they be moved from their place. But this manner of having buoys protruding in a river (which should be noted in passing) does not always prove dominion in a public sea or river: since it is also customarily used by those who do not claim such dominion, for the security of navigation and the freedom of commerce granted to them in such a place. So that ships may be in no danger from whales, wherever the sea is infested by them, a remedy is offered to sailors: castoreum diluted with water and poured into the sea. This, as though the whole school of whales had been struck by aconite, suddenly scatters and is carried into the depths; as Zieglerus testifies in the Description of Schondia, p. m. 485. Magistrates and provincial governors should take care that fishermen do not deceive sailors by showing a false light at night, as if they were to bring them into some harbor, and by that means lead ships and those on board into danger, l. 10. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. It is also useful that those who go ahead and slacken the sails, keep a fire on the high ship
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 117 navi habeant, ad evitandum incursionis periculum; & navis prætoria, quoties opus est, plura luminum insignia præferat. qua de re in Cap. seq. Vt fragmenta navium aut alia signa isthic, ubi pesterunt naves, intacta relinquantur: quibus exitiosa navigantibus loca significentur; quod Regis Arabiæ edicto olim cautum memorat Diodorus Siculus lib. III. Biblioth. Hist. Si non adsit portus naturalis aut satis commodus, ita arte exstruendus est, ut expeditum ac tutum præstet navigantibus accessum. quo nomine laudatur Trajanus Imp. in Arcu ipsius honori Anconæ in portu erecto, uti est in Inscriptionibus Gruteri CCXLVII.6. his verbis: IMP. CAESARI. DIVI. NERVÆ. F. NERVÆ. TRAJANO. OPTIMO. AUG. GERM. DACICO. PONT. MAX. TR. POT. XVII. IMP. VIII. COS. VI. PP. PROVIDENTISSIMO. PRINCIPI. SENATUS. P. Q. R. QUOD. ACCESSUM. ITALIÆ. HOC. ETIAM ADDITO. EX. PECUNIA. SUA. PORTU. TUTIO-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 117 ships should have them, to avoid the danger of assault; and the flagship, whenever necessary, should display several distinctive lights. On this subject see the following chapter. That fragments of ships or other signs there, where ships can perish, should be left untouched: by which places dangerous to sailors may be indicated; a measure formerly ordained by the edict of the King of Arabia, as Diodorus Siculus records, lib. III. Biblioth. Hist. If there is no natural harbor, or one sufficiently convenient, it should be constructed by art in such a way as to provide a ready and safe approach for sailors. In this respect Trajan the Emperor is praised in the Arch erected at Ancona in the harbor to his honor, as is found in Gruter's Inscriptions CCXLVII.6, in these words: IMP. CAESARI. DIVI. NERVÆ. F. NERVÆ. TRAJANO. OPTIMO. AUG. GERM. DACICO. PONT. MAX. TR. POT. XVII. IMP. VIII. COS. VI. PP. PROVIDENTISSIMO. PRINCIPI. SENATUS. P. Q. R. QUOD. ACCESSUM. ITALIÆ. HOC. ETIAM ADDITO. EX. PECUNIA. SUA. PORTU. TUTIO-
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Ioh. Loccenii TIOREM. NAVIGATIONEM. REDDIDERIT. Portus etiam ita exstruendus est, ut naves in eo ad anchoras stantes tueatur ab tempestatibus: ne sit Statio male fida carinis; neve fiat, quod Propertius ait 2, 28. Cum sæpe in portu fructa carina natet. Modum verò exstruendi tutum portum accuratè describit Vitruvius lib. V. de Architecture cap. XII. Aggeres contra vim aquarum exstruantur, littora & ripæ muniantur: ut isthic commeantibus hominibus & adjacentibus oppidis ac urbibus periculum ablit. cujus operis famâ in veteri lapide laudantur M. Aurelius Antoninus, & M. Aurelius Alexander Inscript. Grut. CLXIII. Conf. tit. D. de rip. mun. & tit. Cod. de alluv. In portubus & ostiis fluminum disponantur stationes & excubiæ: ut hostium aut piratarum ingressus aut exitus prohibeatur; aliave navium pericula & insidiæ avertantur. Ita Dido apud Maronem 1. Æn. laboravit & apud Lucanum lib. IX. Ptolomæus rex Ægypti in suis littoribus speculatores constituit. Lucanus d. lib. v. 472. Iam
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Joh. Loccenii TIOREM. NAVIGATIONEM. REDDIDERIT. A harbor must also be so constructed that ships lying there at anchor are protected from storms: so that it may not be a station poorly trusted by hulls; nor may there happen what Propertius says 2, 28. When often in the harbor the broken hull floats. But the manner of constructing a safe harbor is carefully described by Vitruvius, book V, De Architecture, chapter XII. Dams are to be built against the force of the waters, the shores and banks fortified: so that there may be no danger there for men traveling and for neighboring towns and cities. For this work M. Aurelius Antoninus and M. Aurelius Alexander are praised by fame on an ancient stone, Inscript. Grut. CLXIII. Compare tit. D. de rip. mun. & tit. Cod. de alluv. In harbors and river mouths stations and watch-posts are to be placed: so that the entry or exit of enemies or pirates may be prevented; and other dangers of ships and ambushes may be averted. Thus Dido labored according to Maro, 1. Aen. and according to Lucan, book IX. King Ptolemy of Egypt stationed lookouts on his shores. Lucan, loc. cit., book v. 472. Now
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 119 Iam rapido speculator eques per littora cursu, Hospitus adventu pavidam compleverat aulam. Solent etiam apud nonnullas gentes navelia & stationes, in quibus classes, & vires nauticæ adservantur, curiosis populi & peregrinorum oculis, ut olim apud Rhodios (teste Strabone) occlusæ esse: neres ad hostem aliosque, qui eas ignorare debent, temerè dimanent. VIII. Dominus mercium operam dabit, ut fidum ac peritum navis magistrum, navemque probè fabricatam & armatam eligat, cui merces suas committat. Ex monito Hesiodi exiguas naves laudet, sed magnas oneret; non solùm lucri caussa, sed ut merces magis in tuto sint. Non tamen omnem suam substantiam navi imponet, sed plura domi relinquet. Nec omnes merces aut pecuniam uni navi credere sapientis est, sed per plures naves dividere præstat: ut, si una pereat, reliquæ in salvo sint, secundum illud in Gnomologia Gruteri: Tua omnia uni nunquam navi credito. Quod desumptum ex illo Comici in Adelph. a.2. sc.2. Potius quam venias in periculum servesne an perdas, totum dividuum face. Vectores cum Antisthene, quantum possunt, ea sibi viatica parent, quæ cum naufragio simul
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 119 Now the scout, the horseman, with rapid course along the shores, had filled the frightened hall with his arrival. Among certain peoples also the dockyards and stations, in which fleets and naval forces are kept, are wont to be shut against the curious eyes of the populace and of strangers, as once among the Rhodians (as Strabo bears witness); lest reports be loosely carried to the enemy and to others who ought not to know them. VIII. The owner of the goods shall take care to choose a faithful and skilled master of the ship, and a ship well built and equipped, to whom he may entrust his merchandise. In accordance with Hesiod’s advice, let him praise small ships, but load large ones; not only for the sake of profit, but also that the goods may be more safely kept. Yet he shall not place all his substance upon one ship, but shall leave more at home. Nor is it wise to trust all goods or money to a single ship, but it is better to divide them among several ships: so that, if one be lost, the rest may be safe, according to that saying in Gruter’s Gnomologia: Never trust all your property to one ship. Which is taken from that line of the comic poet in Adelph. a.2. sc.2. Rather than come into danger, whether you save or lose it, make the whole divided. Travelers, with Antisthenes, should, as far as they can, provide for themselves such provisions as, together with shipwreck simultaneously
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120 Ioh. Loccenii simul enatent. Si ignorantes in piratica nave vehendi sint, in tempore, si possint, inde clam discedant; aut si hoc non possint, satius est ipsos aurum, quod penes se habent, quam vitam perdere. Aristippus cum aliquando navigaret, accepissetque navem, in qua erat, piraticam esse, depromtum aurum numerabat, dein quasi imprudenti & invito lapsum è manibus jactavit in mare; ingemuitque graviter. hic evasit vitæ periculum. postea dixit: Præstat hoc ab Aristippo perdi, quam Aristippum propter illud. Vectores nec per se nec per res suas impedimento sint aut remoræ laborantibus nautis, præsertim ubi imminet periculum. quieti silentium nautis sine certamine ad ministeria exequenda præstent; ut Scipio suos milites apud Livium monebat. vid. quoque art. 18. Iur. marit. Caroli 9. IX. Magister navis, cui totius navis cura præcipuè mandata est, præceteris adhibere diligentiam & sollicitudinem tenetur rebus quibus præest. inde enim dicitur magister l.57. D. de V. S. Tam sedulam curam navis & mercium in ea gerat oportet, quam diligens solet paterfamilias rerum suarum. Idem peritos rei nauticæ, fideles & industrios ministros conducat; eos benè regat & curet. Ipse vigilans & sobrius navem ingrediatur, cave atque ne per suorum im- pru-
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120 Ioh. Loccenii so that they may also survive. If, unaware, they are being carried on a piratical ship, they should, in good time, if they can, secretly depart from it; or if they cannot do this, it is better for them to lose the gold they have with them than their lives. Aristippus, when once he was sailing and had learned that the ship he was in was a pirate ship, counted out the gold he had taken out, then, as if by accident and against his will, let it slip from his hands and threw it into the sea; and he groaned deeply. Thus he escaped the danger to his life. Later he said: “It is better that this be lost by Aristippus than Aristippus because of it.” Passengers should not, either by themselves or by their belongings, be an obstacle or delay to sailors who are struggling, especially when danger is imminent. They should offer the sailors quiet and silence, without any contest, for carrying out their duties; as Scipio was advising his soldiers in Livy. See also art. 18 of the maritime law of Charles IX. IX. The ship’s master, to whom the care of the whole ship has especially been entrusted, is bound above all others to apply diligence and attention to the matters over which he presides. For this reason he is called magister, l. 57. D. de V. S. He ought to take as careful charge of the ship and the goods in it as a diligent householder customarily takes of his own affairs. Let him likewise hire skilled, faithful, and industrious assistants in nautical matters; let him govern and care for them well. He himself, keeping watch and sober, should go aboard the ship, taking care that through the carelessness of his people-
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Delure Maritimo Lib.II. 121 prudentiam, fraudes & incuriam, aut per suam temulentiam & negligentiam occasio cuicunque periculo præbeatur. Ex avaritia navem non nimis oneret, ne onere ipso deprimatur. Quidque suo & commodo loco reponat; ut, ubi opus fuerit, in promptu sit; nec incommodet navi. Hesiodus lib.2. op. & dier. Bene onus quodcunque locato. Columella lib. XII. de re rust. cap.2. Vbi tempestas incessit, & est rite disposita navis, fuo quidque ordine locatum armamentum sine trepidatione minister promit, cum est à gubernatore postulatum. Foros navis puros & liberos ab impedimentis habeant nautæ: ne hæc obstent laborantibus. Ne longius differant navigationem. commodo & minus periculoso tempore navigent: quale est æstivum, cujus beneficio ventorum acerbitas mitigatur. Tempore verò hyemis navigatio sæpe periculosa, semper incerta est, ut dicitur in l.6. Cod. de offic. rect. prov. Germanicus Cæsar in Phænom. Hiems portu fugienda peritis. Confer Hesiodum 2. op. & dier. inprimis Vegetium rei milit. lib.5. cap.9. de commodo & incommodo navigationis tempore. Si socii itineris Apostoli Pauli, hîc ejus consilium sequuti essent, in tantum F maris
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Delure Maritimo Lib. II. 121 prudence, frauds and negligence, or through his own drunkenness and carelessness, occasion be given to any danger whatsoever. Out of avarice let him not load the ship too much, lest by the burden itself it be sunk. And let him put each thing back in its own convenient place; so that, when need shall be, it may be at hand; nor be in the ship’s way. Hesiod lib. 2. op. & dier. A good man, place whatever burden you will. Columella lib. XII. de re rust. cap. 2. When a storm has come on, and the ship is properly arranged, the sailor brings forth each implement, placed in its own order, without confusion, when it is demanded by the helmsman. Let sailors keep the decks of the ship clean and free from obstacles, lest these hinder those who are laboring. Let them not delay the voyage too long. Let them sail in a convenient and less dangerous season; such as is the summer, by whose favor the harshness of the winds is moderated. But in the season of winter navigation is often dangerous, always uncertain, as is said in l. 6. Cod. de offic. rect. prov. Germanicus Caesar in Phænom. Winter is to be shunned in the harbor by the experienced. Compare Hesiod 2. op. & dier. especially Vegetius, rei milit. lib. 5. cap. 9, on the convenient and inconvenient time of navigation. If the companions of the journey of the Apostle Paul, here had followed his advice, in so great of the sea
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Ioh. Loccenii 122 maris discrimen non venissent Act. cap. 27. Ignota maris aut fluminis majoris loca, vel aggestione arenæ vel latentibus saxis infesta, ne quis temerè naviget absque du- ctore & fundi exploratore. vid. Polyb. lib. 4. Hist. p. m. 309. Præsagia tempestatum fi- deliter observet, ut malum, quod minan- tur, in tempore, quantum potest, præca- veat ac prævertat. Synesius de insomn. . Inconsideratè navigat, nulla signa observans. Serenitati coeli & tran- quillitati maris ne nimis fidat: eodem die, quo luserunt naves, sorberi possunt. Lucre- tius lib. 2. Infidi maris insidias viresque dolumque Vt vitare velint; neve ullo tempore credant, Subdola cum ridet placidi pellacia ponti. Ad pixidem nauticam, tabulas hydrogra- phicas & brevium signa cursum rite diri- gant gubernatores, aliaque sedulò faciant nautæ, ad quæ ex fide officii obligantur: ut post Dei opem, navem salvam in portu sistant. Naufragio autem imminente, mi- seris vectoribus scaphâ excipiendis cito suc- currant: ut prius periculo subducant ho- mines, deinde bona, quæ possunt. quo nomine ipsis peculiare industriæ præmium debetur. X. Alia specialia subsidia, ac munimenta adversus hostes & prædones maris, tem- pestatum
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Ioh. Loccenii 122 into the danger of the sea, Acts ch. 27. Unknown places of the sea or a major river, whether made dangerous by sandbanks or hidden rocks, should not be navigated rashly without a pilot and one who has explored the bottom. vid. Polyb. lib. 4. Hist. p. m. 309. Let him faithfully observe the signs of storms, so that the evil they threaten he may, as far as possible, guard against and forestall in good time. Synesius de insomn. He navigates imprudently, observing no signs. Let him not trust too much in a clear sky and a calm sea: on the same day on which ships have sported, they may be swallowed up. Lucretius lib. 2. May they wish to avoid the snares, force, and deceit of the treacherous sea; and never at any time trust when the false allurements of the calm deep laugh. Let the ship’s compass box, hydrographic charts, and marks of shallows properly direct the course of the pilots, and let the sailors diligently do the other things to which they are bound by the duty of their office: so that, after God’s help, they may bring the ship safely into port. But when shipwreck threatens, let them quickly come to the aid of the wretched passengers by taking them aboard the boat: so that they may first withdraw the persons from danger, then the goods, as far as they can. For this they deserve a special reward for their diligence. X. Other special aids and defenses against enemies and sea-robbers, storms
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De Iure Maritimo Lib II. 123 pestatum & naufragii periculum sunt So- cietas navalis bellica, piratarum persecu- tio, jus postliminii, assecuratio, ut vocant aliaque hujusmodi. quæ cum diffusiorem contineant materiam, insequentibus Capi- tibus ordine tractabuntur. CAP. II. De Societate naveli bellica, vel Admiralitate, ut aliàs vocant. I. Societas navalis, vulgò Admiralitas. hujus etymon. II. Antiquitas, et causæ Societatis navalis. III. Conductio navium Admiralitatis ad usum belli, vel defensionem adversus hostem. IV. Collegium Ammiralitatis. V. Ad quid obligentur socii classis. VI. De ordine internavigandum, et pugna navali strictim. VII. De detrimento et commodo communi pro rata. I. Societas navalis vel bellica vel pacata est. Bellica est, coitio plurium na- vium armatarum ad vim piratarum & ho- stium propulsandam, si occurrat. Græcis F 2 dici-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 123 The dangers of pestilence and shipwreck are: the naval military association, the pursuit of pirates, the right of postliminy, insurance, as it is called, and other things of this kind, which, as they contain more extended matter, shall be treated in the following Chapters in order. CAP. II. Of the Naval Military Association, or Admiralty, as it is otherwise called. I. Naval society, commonly Admiralty: the etymology of this. II. The antiquity and causes of the naval society. III. The hiring of Admiralty ships for the use of war, or for defense against the enemy. IV. The Admiralty College. V. To what the partners of the fleet are bound. VI. Of the order of navigating together, and naval battle, briefly. VII. Of common loss and common benefit pro rata. I. Naval society, whether military or peaceful, is. Military is the coming together of several armed ships to repel the force of pirates and enemies, if any should appear. Among the Greeks F 2 dici-
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124 Ioh. Loccenii dicitur , vel , quod conjunctim una classe navigetur. Hodie vulgò dicitur Admiralitas ab Admiralio vel Thalassiarcha aut maris præfecto, qui præest Collegio Ammiralitatis vel Societatis navalis. Admiralii verò vel Amiralii nomen ab Aarabico emir, seu amira, quod dominum vel præfectum signat, deducendum putant. vid. Voss. de vit. serm. 2, 2. II. Est antiqua hujusmodi Societas navalis, non heri aut hodie primum inventa. Siquidem jam sua ætate Salomo rex Hebræorum Societatem quandam classicam cum Hiramo Rege Tyriorum inivit. Et dictio illa Græca indicio est, jam olim apud Græcos in usu fuisse. nec apud illos solum sed etiam Romanos. cujus rei locupletem testem Tullium habemus, qui lib. XVI. ep. I. ad Atticum ita scribit: Dymæos agro pulsos, mare infestum habere nil mirum. loqui eum de Dymæis piratis patet. Mox subjungit modum occurrendi illis: In Eruti videatur aliquid præsidii esse. Idem epist. 4. d. lib. Hæc navigatio habet quasdam suspiciones periculi: itaque uti constituebam . Ex his simul liquet, quænam causæ olim fuerint & adhuc sint hujusmodi Societatis navalis, nimirum ut adversus piratas, hostes aut alios invasores naves negociatorum tutetur illisque secu- ritatem
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124 Ioh. Loccenii it is said, either because they sail together in one fleet. Today it is commonly called Admiralty, from Admiral or Thalassiarch, or commander of the sea, who presides over the College of Admiralty or naval society. The name of Admiral, or Amiral, is thought to be derived from the Arabic emir, or amira, which denotes a lord or commander. see Voss. de vit. serm. 2, 2. II. Such a naval Society is ancient, not first invented yesterday or today. For already in his time Solomon king of the Hebrews entered into a certain naval association with Hiram king of Tyre. And that Greek term is proof that it was already long ago in use among the Greeks. nor only among them, but also among the Romans. of which matter we have a full witness in Cicero, who writes thus in lib. XVI. ep. I. to Atticus: The Dymæans, driven from their land, have the sea infested, which is no wonder. It is clear that he is speaking of the Dymæan pirates. He then adds the means of meeting them: In Eruti there may seem to be some protection. The same, epist. 4. d. lib. This voyage has some suspicion of danger: therefore as I was intending to do. From these things it is likewise clear, what causes formerly were, and still are, of such a naval Society, namely, that it may protect merchants' ships against pirates, enemies, or other invaders and secure their safety
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 125 ritatem viæ præstet; vel etiam rempub aut portus defendat. idcircò tot armare naves solent, quot opus esse vident vel magistra- tus loci, vel privati mercatores, authori- tate tamen vel permissu magistratus. inde hæc Societas bellica nuncupatur Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 4. à qua differt Societas na- valis pacata, de qua inf. ß. VII. & lib. III. cap. VI. III. Aliquando naves à Collegio Am- miralitatis conducere solent extranei bel- lum navale gerentes, & sibi adjungere ad firmandum vires, ac defensionem adversus hostes; & quidem suis sumtibus ac con- venta mercede, quam jura permittunt arg. l.9. ß.1. D. quod met. caus. IV. Collegium verò Ammralitatis, qua- le etiam in hoc Regno luculenter constitu- tum est, authoritate publicâ tractat nego- tia, quæ ad classis publicæ exstructionem, armaturam & expeditionem spectant; una cum Navalium & portuum munitione & conservatione. Habet idem suum forum ac tribunal peculiare, quo res ad justitiam & disciplinam navalem facientes devolvun- tur. V. A collegio Societatis navalis emissi navium socii obligantur vel patriæ suæ, vel communi caussæ ad fidam & stabilem con- junctionem, auxilium & defensionem tam F 3 mu-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 125 It may provide for the safety of the route; or even defend the commonwealth or ports. Therefore they are accustomed to arm as many ships as they see to be necessary, either by the magistrate of the place, or by private merchants, however with the authority or permission of the magistrate. Hence this is called a warlike Society, Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 4. From this differs the peaceful naval Society, of which below § VII. and lib. III. cap. VI. III. Sometimes those conducting naval war are accustomed to hire ships from the College of Admiralty, and to attach them to themselves for the strengthening of their forces and for defense against enemies; and indeed at their own expense and at an agreed wage, which the laws permit, arg. l.9. §.1. D. quod met. caus. IV. But the College of Admiralty, such as also has been conspicuously established in this Kingdom, by public authority manages those affairs which pertain to the building, arming, and dispatch of the public fleet, together with the fortification and preservation of navies and ports. It likewise has its own special forum and tribunal, to which matters concerning naval justice and discipline are referred. V. The partners of ships sent out by the college of the naval society are bound either to their own country or to the common cause by a faithful and steadfast union, aid, and defense, both F 3 mu-
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Ioh. Loccenii 126 munitarum quam non munitarum navium, sive hoste, sive pirata, aut alio fatali casu ac periculo ingruente; idque ex fide juramenti & conscientiæ suæ. Separantes se à Socie- tate classis bellicæ ante tempus, aut in ipso rerum discrimine, vel arbitrariam, vel cor- poralem poenam pro delicti conditione, ex vigore disciplinæ militaris subire solent. VI. Quomodo verò ordines inter navi- gandum à prætoria & proprætoria navi, re- liquaque classe sint observandi, qua ratione peculiari vexilli erectione aut velorum ad- ductione, aut tormenti explosione, aut no- cturno insigni plurium luminum, quando imminet hostis, vel ignota classis, vel tem- pestas oritur aut nebula, signum ad præ- cavendum periculum dari debeat, & quæ alia huc spectant, hæc certis articulis ex- primi solent, quales etiam in Archivo Ad- miralitatis hujus regni adservantur. vide quoque edicta Ordinum Holland. anno 1644. edita, quæ sua lingua Placcaten vocant tom. 1. pag. 323. & seqq. & 429.430. Item quo- modo in pugna navali acies instruenda sit, venti commodum hosti intercipiendum aut inutile reddendum, hostiles naves ad- oriendæ, aut insidiis circumveniendæ, præ- da cautè agenda, aliaque hujusmodi ad ar- tem aut disciplinam militiæ navalis spe- ctantia,
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Ioh. Loccenii 126 both fortified and unfortified ships, whether by an enemy, a pirate, or some other fatal accident and danger arising; and this from the faith of their oath and their own conscience. Those who separate themselves from the company of the war fleet before the proper time, or in the very crisis of events, are accustomed, according to the circumstances of the offense, to undergo either an arbitrary or a corporal punishment by virtue of military discipline. VI. But as to how the orders are to be observed while sailing, from the admiral’s ship and the vice-admiral’s ship, and the rest of the fleet, by what method, through the particular hoisting of a flag, or shortening of sails, or discharge of cannon, or by a nocturnal signal of many lights, when an enemy threatens, or an unknown fleet appears, or a storm arises or fog sets in, warning signals should be given to avert danger, and what else pertains to this matter, these things are usually set forth in certain articles, such as those also preserved in the Archive of the Admiralty of this kingdom; see also the edicts of the States of Holland issued in the year 1644, which in their own language they call Placcaten, vol. 1, pp. 323 and following, and 429–430. Likewise, how the line of battle is to be formed in naval combat, how the advantage of the wind is to be intercepted from the enemy or made useless, how hostile ships are to be attacked, or surrounded by ambush, how plunder is to be handled cautiously, and other matters of this kind pertaining to the art or discipline of naval warfare,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 127 etantia, aliis ex professo hæc tractantibus, ipsique experientiæ relinquo. VII. Quamvis in societate navium pa- cata vel negociatoria, ubi confertur pecu- nia cum pecunia, lucrum & damnum sit commune, tamen hoc non ita observa- tur in societate navali bellica, sed legibus & pactis differt. In societate navali adver- sus piratas utilitas communis est ipsa de- fensio, interdum & præda pro rata. Moris etiam est æstimari naves & merces in illis, atque ex his summam confici: ut damna quæ eveniunt, & vulneratorum impendia ferantur à dominis navium & mercium, pro parte quam habent singuli in ea sum- ma. quod juri naturæ consentaneum est. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 25. arg. LL. Wi- sigothor. lib. V. tit. 5, c. 5. Ordinat. de Admi- ral. in constit. & privil. Amsterod. p. 450. Edicta Ordin. Holl. tom. 1. pag. 323. CAP. III. De Piratis. I. Piratas esse publicos hostes, quatenus à privatis invadi possint, aut aliis superio- rem agnoscentibus. II. Persecutio piratarum in alieno territorio quousque licita. F 4 L L. Capti
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 127 and these matters, leaving the rest to others who treat of them more fully, and to experience itself. VII. Although in a peaceful or commercial partnership of ships, where money is contributed with money, profit and loss are common, yet this is not so observed in a naval warlike partnership, but is distinguished by laws and agreements. In a naval partnership against pirates, the common benefit is the defense itself, and sometimes also the booty in proportion. It is also customary to estimate the ships and goods in them, and from these to make a total: so that the losses which occur, and the expenses of the wounded, may be borne by the owners of the ships and goods, according to the share which each has in that total; which is in agreement with the law of nature. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 25. arg. LL. Wisigothor. lib. V. tit. 5, c. 5. Ordinat. de Admiral. in constit. & privil. Amsterod. p. 450. Edicta Ordin. Holl. tom. 1. pag. 323. CAP. III. Concerning Pirates. I. That pirates are public enemies, insofar as they may be attacked by private persons, or by those otherwise acknowledging a superior. II. How far the pursuit of pirates within foreign territory is lawful. F 4 L L. Capti
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128 Ioh. Loccenii III. Capti ab illis retinent suam libertatem. Non debent esse pignori redimentibus eos à piratis. quod cum limitatione accipitur. IV. Num Magistratus loci ex damno. à piratis dato teneatur. V. Contrahens cum pradone in quantum obligetur. VI. Num piratis fides publica debeatur. num illis jurata fides servanda sit. VII. Inter prædones communi dividundo judicium locum non habere. Rapta ab illis bona ubicunque reperta, vindicari posse. IX. Pana piratarum, et receptatorum. I. QV in præcedenti Capite dictum sit, societatem navalem adversus piratas coiri, de Piratis quæ in jure occurrunt & nostri sunt instituti, in hunc locum rejicere placuit. Licet autem olim rudi seculo & inter barbaros prædari, virtutis militaris ab otiosis exercendæ materia quædam, & maris gloria sit habita, tamen scimus prædones maris ipso jure diffidatos esse, ut loquuntur, i. e. quibus feida vel bellum indictum est, Vinn. ad Peck. de LL. Nautic. p. 370. quia sunt publicæ fidei & juris gentium violatores, & tanquam hostes publici, ob insignem illam malitiam quam exercent in mari in deprædandis alienis
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128 Ioh. Loccenii III. Those captured by them retain their liberty. They ought not to be held as pledges for those redeeming them from pirates, which is to be understood with a limitation. IV. Whether the local magistrate is liable for damage inflicted by pirates. V. How far one contracting with a pirate is bound. VI. Whether public faith is due to pirates; whether sworn faith must be kept with them. VII. That an action for partition does not lie among pirates. Goods taken by them may, wherever found, be reclaimed. IX. The punishment of pirates and of receivers. I. Since in the preceding chapter it was said that a naval society should be formed against pirates, it has seemed fit to transfer to this place what in law occurs concerning pirates and belongs to our subject. Although in earlier rude times and among barbarians plundering was regarded as a kind of material for exercising military valor in idleness, and as the glory of the sea, nevertheless we know that sea robbers are, as they say, outlawed by the law itself, that is, against whom feud or war has been declared, Vinn. ad Peck. de LL. Nautic. p. 370, because they are violators of public faith and of the law of nations, and, as public enemies, on account of that notable malice which they exercise at sea in plundering others’
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 129 alienis navibus, & tollenda libertate navi- gationis & commerciorum. Vnde etiam à privatis invadi possunt & apprehendi propria authoritate. vid. Ius Suetic. c. 42. de viol. jur. Reg. LL. prov. c. 24. jur. civit. sal- vâ tamen Magistratui loci jurisdictione criminali, & instructione de modo perse- quendi piratas. Ita Cæsar privatus adhuc piratas, à quibus captus fuerat, classe tu- multuaria persecutus est, ipsorumque na- ves partim in fugam conject, partim mer- sit; & cum Proconsul neglexisset in eos animadvertere, ipse in mare reversus eos cruci suffixit. Sed hoc eo forte referri posse putat Grotius lib. 2. de jur. b. e. p. cap. 20. §. 8. ubi judicia nulla sunt, ut in mari. Sa- tius tamen est navigantes instrui mandatis à publica potestate ad persequendos pir- tas, quoscunque in mari deprehenderint, & proximo judicio sisti: ut data occasione uti possint, non quasi ausu proprio, sed ut publicè jussi. Grot. d. loc. §. 14. Civitatibus tamen superiorem agnoscentibus jus per- sequendi piratas in fluminibus publicis il- las alluentibus & puniendi à suprema po- testate, tuendæ liberæ navigationis & com- merciorum causa, concedi posse & conces- sum fuisse, experientiæ fide comprobatur. II. Piratarum, quos Magistratus per suos in suo territorio coepit persequi, con- F 5 tinuare
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 129 on alien ships, and with the liberty of navigation and commerce to be taken away. Hence they may also be attacked by private persons and seized on their own authority. see Ius Suetic. c. 42. de viol. jur. Reg. LL. prov. c. 24. jur. civit. saving however to the magistrate of the place criminal jurisdiction, and instruction as to the manner of pursuing pirates. Thus Caesar, while still a private person, pursued pirates by a hastily gathered fleet, by whom he had been captured, and of their ships some he drove to flight, others he sunk; and when the proconsul had neglected to proceed against them, he himself returned to the sea and crucified them. But Grotius thinks this may perhaps be referred to that place, lib. 2. de jur. b. e. p. cap. 20. §. 8. where there are no courts, as at sea. Yet it is better that those sailing be furnished by public authority with orders to pursue pirates, whomever they may seize at sea, and to bring them before the nearest court: so that, when opportunity is given, they may act, not as by private boldness, but as publicly commanded. Grot. d. loc. §. 14. However, to states acknowledging a superior power, the right of pursuing pirates in public rivers flowing through them, and of punishing them by supreme authority for the sake of protecting free navigation and commerce, may be granted and has been granted, as the trustworthiness of experience proves. II. Of pirates, whom the magistrate has begun to pursue by his agents within his territory, to continue
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Ioh. Loccenii 130 tinuare persecutionem potest etiam in alieno territorio, ibique eos comprehendere: ita tamen ut ibi judicio sistantur, nec in propriam jurisdictionem, nisi cum istius loci Magistratus consensu, deducantur l.1. C. ubi quis de curiali c.1. ß. si judex de pac. tem. Gail lib.1. de Pace pub. c.16. n.25. seqq. Id c.9. de Arrest. imp. n.12. Webner in Pract. observ. verb. Streybeuster. III. A piratis capti, liberi manent, nec jure fiunt capientium servi l.19. ß.2. D. de captiv. & postl. rev. Nec redemtus à piratis debet esse pignori redimenti eum. Liberi enim hominis obligatio non eo valet, ut jus pignoris in eo constituatur velut in his quæ quis de bonis suis obnoxia facit l.6. C. quæ res pign. ob. l.12. C. de obl. & act. In causam tamen pignoris detineri potest, donec solvat pretium; licet ista detentio eum in servitutem non detrudat l.3. ß.3. D. de hom. lib. exh. l.20. ß.1. qui test. f.p.l.2. C. de postl. rev. Itaque redemtus omninò obligatur aut datum pro se pretium redemtori, si potest, statim restituere, aut idoneè pro se cavere, aut, si ita velit redemtor, laboris obsequio vicem referre; incolumi tamen ipsius libertate & jure postliminii. l.ult. C. de postlim. Sed & unus pro uno aut pluri- bus captis ea conditione mitti potest, ut pecuniam pro se & reliquis adferat, & nisi redeat,
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Ioh. Loccenii 130 He can also continue the pursuit in foreign territory and there apprehend them, provided, however, that they are brought before a court there, and are not taken into his own jurisdiction unless with the consent of the magistrate of that place. l.1. C. ubi quis de curiali c.1. ß. si judex de pac. tem. Gail lib.1. de Pace pub. c.16. n.25. seqq. Id c.9. de Arrest. imp. n.12. Webner in Pract. observ. verb. Streybeuster. III. Those captured by pirates remain free, and do not become the captors’ slaves by law. l.19. ß.2. D. de captiv. & postl. rev. Nor must one redeemed from pirates be given as pledge to the one redeeming him. For the obligation of a free man does not extend so far that a right of pledge may be constituted in him, as in things which someone makes liable out of his own goods. l.6. C. quæ res pign. ob. l.12. C. de obl. & act. Yet he may be held in security for the claim until he pays the price; although this detention does not thrust him into servitude. l.3. ß.3. D. de hom. lib. exh. l.20. ß.1. qui test. f.p.l.2. C. de postl. rev. Therefore the person redeemed is altogether bound either to restore at once the price paid for him to the redeemer, if he can, or to give adequate security for himself, or, if the redeemer so wishes, to repay the equivalent by labor and service; nevertheless, his liberty and right of postliminium remain intact. l.ult. C. de postlim. But one may also be sent in place of one person or of several who have been captured, on the condition that he bring money for himself and the others, and if he does not return,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. I 3 I redeat, ut retenti pro eo solvant, in quem magistratus judicium ubicunque conveniri poterit, dabit l. 21. D. de neg. gest. IV. Num ex piratarum in mari passim grassantium aut publicè in hostes emissorum facto, ob prædas in amicos, socios aut eos qni neutrarum sunt partium actas, Magistratus loci teneatur? est quæstio juris pub. aut gentium, & ventilatione digna. Certis modis eos vel extra bellum vel in bello teneri certum est, quidquid etiam coloris vel excusationis hîc quidam obtendant; si nimirum non fecerint, quæ jure gentium debent, nec adhibuerint, quæ possunt, ad eos prohibendos. Cum Romani (apud Polybium lib. 2. ) per Legatos de injuriis Illyriorum apud Reginam eorum Teutam expostulassent, & piraticam in Italos ab illis exercitam imposterum prohiberi desiderassent, responsum acceperunt à Regina, curæ sibi fore, ne qua Romano populo publicè ab Illyriis fieret injuria; cæterum ut impediat, quo minus privatim quam potest quisque utilitatem è mari capiat, hoc verò Regibus nequaquam in more esse. Verum quid ex hoc Reginæ responso aliud colligas, quam eam suis etiam extra belli necessitatem prædandi licentiam concessisse? & hoc morem Regium scilicet vocat. Si rectius sentire voluisset, satis scire potuisset, hoc verè F 6
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On Maritime Law, Book II. I 3 I let him return, so that those detained on his behalf may pay, against whom the magistrate’s action, wherever it can be brought, will lie; see l. 21. D. de neg. gest. IV. Whether a magistrate of the place is liable for the acts of pirates ranging about the sea at large, or sent out publicly against enemies, for plundering friends, allies, or those who are of neither party? This is a question of public or international law, and worthy of discussion. It is certain that in certain ways they may be restrained either outside war or in war, whatever pretext or excuse some may here put forward; namely, if they have not done what they ought according to the law of nations, nor taken the measures they could to prevent them. When the Romans (in Polybius, book 2) had, through their envoys, complained to their queen Teuta of the wrongs of the Illyrians, and had desired that the piracy practiced by them against the Italians should henceforth be prohibited, they received this answer from the queen: that she would see to it that no public injury should be done by the Illyrians to the Roman people; but as for preventing individuals from privately making as much use as they could of the sea, that was by no means contrary to royal custom. But what else can you gather from this answer of the queen, except that she also granted her subjects permission to plunder even outside the necessity of war? And this she calls, of course, royal custom. If she had wished to judge more correctly, she could have known well enough that this truly
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132 Ioh. Loccenii verè Regium esse, quibuscunque possis benefacere, & non solum à suis, sed etiam peregrinis vim & injuriam prohibere, debitaque severitate plectere. qui verò scit & prohibere potest, nec prohibet, ipse quoque in culpa est. Vnde Grotius ait de hoc facto lib. 2. de jur. b. e. p. c. 21. Teuca Reginæ Illyriorum non accipitur excusatio, quod diceret non à se, sed à subditis piraticam exerceri: neque enim prohibebat. vid. & Alb. Gentil. lib. 1. de jur. bell. c. 21. Injustitiæ esse, non solum si ipse inferas injuriam, sed etiam si ab iis quibus infertur, non propulses, si possis, Cicero 1. Offic. docet. Et 3. Off. Sibi ut quisque malit, quod ad usum vitæ pertinet, quam alteri adquirere, concessum esse non repugnante natura. Illud verò naturam non pati, ut aliorum spoliis nostras facultates & opes augeamus. Neque verò hoc solum natura, sed & legibus populorum ita constitutum esse, ut non liceat sui commodi causa nocere alteri. Sed & si belli maritimi necessitas incumbat, præstat delectis domesticis, aut militibus nauticis mercenariis, qui subduce & disciplina degant, aut sociorum ope, quam colluvie pessimorum hominum piratis adversus hostes uti, qui licentiam spoliandi nacti, facile præscriptos mandati fines excedunt: ut ne quidem amicis, aut aliis, à quibus vel ipsi vel eorum patroni nun-
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132 Ioh. Loccenii truly to be royal: to be able to do good to whomsoever you may, and not only to prevent violence and injury from your own people, but also from strangers, and to punish with due severity. But he who knows and is able to prevent it, and does not prevent it, is himself also at fault. Hence Grotius says of this deed, lib. 2. de jur. b. e. p. c. 21, that the excuse of Teuca, Queen of the Illyrians, is not accepted when she said that piracy was practiced not by her, but by her subjects: for she did not prohibit it. see also Alb. Gentil. lib. 1. de jur. bell. c. 21. Cicero teaches in Offic. 1 that it is an injustice not only if you yourself inflict injury, but also if, when you are able, you do not repel it from those on whom it is inflicted. And in Offic. 3: that each person may prefer for himself, as far as concerns the uses of life, rather than acquire it for another, is granted, nature not opposing; but that nature does not allow us to increase our means and wealth by the spoils of others. Nor indeed has this been established by nature alone, but also by the laws of peoples, so that it is not lawful, for the sake of one’s own advantage, to harm another. And if the necessity of maritime war should press upon us, it is better to use chosen domestic men, or hired seamen-soldiers who live under discipline, or the help of allies, than to use against enemies a horde of the worst men, pirates, who, once they have obtained license to plunder, easily exceed the prescribed limits of their commission: so that not even to friends, or others, from whom either they themselves or their patrons...
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 133 nunquam læsi sunt, parcant. quod ipsa re compertum, cum quædam Vandalicæ civitates, aliis molitionibus ad liberandum custodiaMargaretæ Reginæ Albertum Regem quondam Suediæ frustra adhibitis, coëgissent copias piratarum ad deprædandum in mari Suedos, Danos & Norvegos, & portus ipsis ad distrahendam prædam patefecissent, id non solum magnæ apud vicinos invidiæ; sed & maximo iisdem aliisque detrimento fuit: dum effreni ista licentia tandem in quosvis promiscuè navigantes usi sunt piratæ. adeò ut necesse esset vim illam una cum ipsis authoribus è mari Balthico junctis regnorum & maritimarum civitatum viribus profligari. Ex neglectu ergo tenentur magistratus, si, dum pro onere tuendi maris vectigal accipiunt, suas naves præsidiarias, & excursorias ad explorandam maris securitatem, ad purgandum illud à piratis in mari non habeant; aut si ipsi piratas adversus hostes emiserint, ad coercendam eorum contra socios & amicos licentiam non ea adhibeant, quæ possunt ac debent remedia: quo nomine damnati sunt olim ab Amphictyonibus Scyrii. Quæsitum aliquando ex facto est apud Belgas, cum Ordines potestatem prædaram in mari ex hoste agendarum per codicillos plurimis dedissent, & eorum non nulli
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De Iure Maritimo, Lib. II. 133 let them never be injured, let them be spared. This was proved in fact, when certain Vandalic cities, after other attempts had been made in vain to free Albert, formerly King of Sweden, from the custody of Queen Margaret, had compelled bands of pirates to plunder the Swedes, Danes, and Norwegians at sea, and had opened their ports to them for the disposal of their booty; this not only brought great enmity upon them among their neighbors, but also caused very great loss to themselves and others: for under this unchecked license the pirates at last used it against all who sailed indiscriminately. So much so that it became necessary for that force, together with its authors, to be driven from the Baltic Sea by the united power of the kingdoms and maritime cities. Therefore magistrates are liable for neglect, if, while they receive a tax for the burden of protecting the sea, they do not keep their guard ships and patrol ships for examining the safety of the sea and clearing it of pirates; or if they themselves have let pirates loose against enemies, and do not apply those remedies which can and ought to be used to restrain their license against allies and friends: for which reason the Scyrii were formerly condemned by the Amphictyons. In Belgium it was once a question arising from a case, when the Estates had granted by letters patent to many the power of carrying on predatory warfare at sea against the enemy, and some of them
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Ioh. Loccenii 134 „ nulli res amicorum rapuissent, desertaque „ patria mari vagarentur, ac ne revocati „ quidem domum redirent, an rectores „ eo nomine tenerentur: aut quod malorum hominum usi essent opera, aut quod „ cautionem non exegissent. Responsum „ est, eos in nihil amplius teneri, quam ut „ noxios, si reperiri possent, punirent aut „ dederent: præterea in bona raptorum jus „ reddi curarent. Nam ipsos injustæ prædationis causam non fuisse, nec quicquam „ de ea participasse: prohibuisse etiam legibus, ne amicis noceretur. Cautionem „ ut exigerent, nullo jure fuisse obligatos, „ cum possent etiam sine codicillis omnibus subditis hostem spoliandi potestatem „ facere; quod & factum olim esset: neque „ talem permissionem causam esse cur damnum datum esset sociis, cum possent „ privati etiam sine permissu tali naves armare & in mare progredi. Mali verò an „ futuri illi essent, provideri non potuisse: neque verò vitari posse, quominus „ & malorum opera utamur, alioqui nullum colligi posse exercitum. Neque verò „ si quid milites aut terrestres, aut nautici „ contra imperium amicis nocuissent, reges teneri. quod Galliæ & Angliæ testimoniis probatum. Vt verò sine culpa sua „ ex ministrorum facto quisquam teneatur, non
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Ioh. Loccenii 134 “that the property of their friends had not been plundered, and that, with their country deserted, they were wandering by sea; and whether, even after being recalled, they did not return home, whether the rulers were to be held liable on that account: either because they had used the help of bad men, or because they had not required security. It was answered that they were bound to nothing more than to punish the guilty, if they could be found, or to surrender them; and besides this, to take care that restitution be made from the goods of the plunderers. For they themselves had not been the cause of the unjust plunder, nor had they taken any part in it: indeed, they had forbidden by laws that harm should be done to their friends. They were under no legal obligation to require security, since they could even without written orders give all their subjects permission to despoil the enemy; and this had once in fact been done. Nor would such permission be a cause why damage had been done to allies, since private persons too could, even without such permission, arm ships and proceed to sea. But whether those men would prove wicked in the future could not have been foreseen; nor indeed could it be avoided that we should make use also of wicked men’s help, otherwise no army could be assembled. Nor, if by the act of their ministers any soldiers, whether on land or at sea, had harmed friends contrary to orders, were the kings liable, as was proved by the evidence of France and England. But that anyone should be held liable without his own fault, because of the act of his servants, not”
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 135 non esse juris gentium, ex quo dijudicanda esset hæc controversia, sed juris civilis, nec generalis, sed adversus nautas & alios quosdam ex rationibus peculiaribus introductum. In hanc partem & his argumentis à supremi auditorii judicibus contra Pomeranos quosdam pronuntiatum est; ad exemplum rerum in causa non dispari ante duo secula judicatarum. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 17, 20. Sic, cum Gallicus apud Reginam Angliæ Legatus conquestus esset, Montgomeryium Anglorum auxiliis contra foedus ad Rupellam navigationem suscepisse: & Mercatores Anglos Rupellanis obsessis rem annonariam subministrasse; respondit Regina, se fidem foedere interpositam sanctè servare & servaturam. auxiliates illos piratas esse & extorres; in jussu suo solvisse; signa ementira prætulisse, atque ut in eos animadverteretur, se peroptare; apud Camdenum ad annum 1573. Si verò quorundam subditorum piraticam exercentium ita perpetuum sit maleficium ac juri naturæ contrarium, ut, quod faciunt, credantur facere omninò magistratu suo improbante, & in eos judicium postulari non possit, ab his res recuperare & ultionem exposcere licebit tanquam à deditis. At alios innocentes eo nomine armis impetere, est contra pacem.
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De Iure Maritimo, Book II, 135. It is not a matter of the law of nations, from which this controversy should be decided, but of civil law; and not of general civil law, but of a law introduced against sailors and certain others for particular reasons. In this sense, and on these arguments, judgment was pronounced by the judges of the supreme court against certain Pomeranians; as an example from matters decided in a not dissimilar case two centuries earlier. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 17, 20. Thus, when the French ambassador to the Queen of England complained that Montgomery, with English assistance, had undertaken navigation to La Rochelle in breach of treaty, and that English merchants had supplied provisions to the besieged people of La Rochelle, the Queen replied that she would faithfully keep, and had faithfully kept, the treaty pledge; that those auxiliaries were pirates and fugitives; that they had sailed under her order; that they had displayed false colors; and that she greatly desired that they should be punished; apud Camdenum ad annum 1573. But if the piratical acts of certain subjects are such a continuing offense and so contrary to the law of nature that what they do is believed to be done altogether without the approval of their magistrate, and if judgment cannot be demanded against them, then it will be permissible to recover things from them and to seek revenge as from those who have surrendered. But to attack other innocent persons with arms on that account is against peace.
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136 Ioh. Loccenii pacem. Grotius de jure belli & pacis 3, 2c, 32. V. Si vecturas navium alienarum, quas prædo, tanquam putativus dominus, ut loquuntur, locavit aut exercuit, à condu- ctore acceperit, aut eo nomine quid ei so- lutum sit, hoc quidem conductorem, qui cum eo bona fide contraxit, liberat; nisi sciens prædonem esse ei solverit, tunc enim ipsi domino obligatur. Si verò contrahens cum ipso domino vel ejus servo, prædoni solvat, non liberatur. l. 55. D. de condict. in deb. arg. l. 88. D. de solut. & ad utramque legem Gothofr. Item prædoni commodati & depositi actionem jure gentium competere statuit jus R. si dominus non appareat l. 64. D. de judic. l. 16. commod. l. 1. ß. 39. l. 31. ß. 1. D. depos. VI. Sed dubium esse potest, num piratis jurata fides servanda sit: quia pirata subla- tis commerciis rumpunt foedus generis humani, ut de illis loquitur Florus 3, 6. Et ut Tullius 3. Offic. monet; Pirata non est ex perduellium numero definitus, sed communis hostis omnium: cum eo fides esse non debet, nec jus- jurandum commune. Si quid ergo metu ex- presserint, repeti potest. Verum quidem est, non eam juris communionem cum pi- rata esse, quæ cum hoste est. unde fide pu- blica frui indignus est, quam ipse violat. Ab-
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136 Johannes Loccenius peace. Grotius, On the Law of War and Peace 3, 2c, 32. V. If he has received the hire of the ships of others, which the robber, as a putative owner, as they say, has let out or operated, from the hirer, or if anything has been paid to him on that account, this indeed frees the hirer, who has contracted with him in good faith; unless, knowing him to be a robber, he has paid him, for then he is bound to the true owner. But if one contracting with the owner himself or his slave pays the robber, he is not released. l. 55. D. de condict. in deb. arg. l. 88. D. de solut. & to both laws Gothofr. Likewise, the action of loan for use and deposit is held by Roman law to belong to the robber by the law of nations, if the owner does not appear, l. 64. D. de judic. l. 16. commod. l. 1. ß. 39. l. 31. ß. 1. D. depos. VI. But it may be doubtful whether an oath given to pirates ought to be kept: because pirates, by tearing away commerce, break the covenant of the human race, as Florus speaks of them 3, 6. And as Cicero warns in 3 Offic.; A pirate is not classified among public enemies, but is the common enemy of all: with him there ought to be no good faith, nor a common oath. If therefore they have exacted anything under fear, it may be reclaimed. It is certainly true that the communion of law with a pirate is not such as exists with an enemy. Hence he is unworthy to enjoy public faith, which he himself violates. Ab-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 137 Absurdum est prædones securos esse, ait lex 13. de noxal. act: Hinc etiam piratæ jus legationis non habent, nisi illud fide data nanciscantur. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 2, 18, 2. Paschal. Legati c. 12. Attamen si fidei datæ juramenti quoque religio accesserit, ea non solum hominem homini, sed ipsi Deo ob- ligat: contra quem metus exceptio non est, ut contra hominem. Promissum ergo jura- tum in re permissa servandum est, vel ideò, quod affirmatio religiosa est, quæ nulla elusione temerari debet. Tullius d. lib. quod affirmatè quasi Deo teste promiseris, id te- nendum est. Et in c. si vero 8. de jurejur: di- citur: Non nos alicui dare materiam volumus veniendi contra proprium juramentum, ne autores perjurii videamur. Anton. Fer- nand. in Theol. moral. p. 55. Qui latroni (piratæ) minitanti mortem promisit cum ju- ramento centum (quod facere secundum se nul- lum est peccatum) tenetur sub juramento pro- missum implere. Sed adi Grotium hæc ac- curatè & fusè exsequentem in de jure bell. & pac. lib. 2. c. 13. ß. 15. & lib. 2. c. 17. ß. 19. & lib. 3. c. 19. ß. 2. 3. 4. 5. VII. Vtut prædones rapta æqualiter dividant, tamen inter eos communi di- vidundo judicium locum habere negatur in jure R. l 7. ß. 4. D. comm. div. nec si precario possideant, nec si clam: injusta enim
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 137 It is absurd that robbers should be secure, says the law 13. de noxal. act: Hence also pirates do not have the right of safe-conduct, unless they obtain it by given faith. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 2, 18, 2. Paschal. Legati c. 12. However, if to the faith given the obligation of an oath is also added, this does not bind only man to man, but man to God himself: against whom the exception of fear does not apply, as it does against man. A promised thing therefore must be kept when sworn to in a permitted matter, either because it is a religious affirmation, which must not be set aside by any evasion. Tullius says: since you have promised, as it were with God as witness, you must keep it. And in c. si vero 8. de jurejur: it is said: We do not wish to give anyone material for going against his own oath, lest we seem to be authors of perjury. Anton. Fer- nand. in Theol. moral. p. 55. He who promised a robber (threatening death) with an oath one hundred (which to do in itself is no sin at all) is bound under the oath to fulfill the promise. But see Grotius, who treats these matters accurately and at length in de jure bell. & pac. lib. 2. c. 13. ß. 15. & lib. 2. c. 17. ß. 19. & lib. 3. c. 19. ß. 2. 3. 4. 5. VII. However much robbers divide what they have taken equally, nevertheless among them the action of division by common suit is denied to have place in Roman law. l 7. ß. 4. D. comm. div. neither if they possess by precarium, nor if secretly: for it is unjust
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Ioh. Loccenii 138 enim est possessio. precaria verò justa quidem, sed quæ non pergat ad judicii vigorem. Quin & bona piratarum naufraga impune subriperè permisit Frid. Imp. l. 18. C. de furt. ubi tamen authoritatem & dispensationem superiorum intervenire satius est: ne alia pro aliis fortè surripiantur. Res autem à piratis raptæ, ubicunque repertæ vindicari possunt à vero domino. vid. cap. seq. 4. 9. 4. aut si is, qui piratis iterum eripuit, probare possit, sibi ejus rei dominium justo titulo ante adquisitum esse. Ei tamen qui suo sumtu possessionem rei alienæ adeptus est, tantum ex naturali æquitate est rependendum, quantum dominus ipse ad rem recuperandam libenter impensurus erat. Ipsa enim facti possessio, præsertim recuperatu difficilis, est aliquid æstimabile, & in hoc dominus post rem amissam censetur factus locupletior. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 2, 10, 9, & 3, 9, 16. Quamvis hæc lege civili aut statutis populorum pactisque aliquantum variant. Grot. d. loc. 17. & in Not. ubi LL Hispanicas & Venetas in hanc rem ad testimonium citat. vid. quoque Ius Lub. Lib. 6. t. 4. a. 2. & tit. 5. Hujusmodi tamen leges non obstant exteris, quo minus res suas vindicent. Hoc etiam est utile institutum, ut piratis ad portum aliquem appellentibus non permittatur istic vendere bona
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Ioh. Loccenii 138 for possession is even under precarious tenure indeed lawful, but such as does not continue to the force of a judgment. Moreover, Frid. Imp. l. 18. C. de furt. allowed that even the goods of shipwrecked pirates might be carried off with impunity; yet it is better that the authority and dispensation of superiors intervene, lest other things be stolen instead of those. But things taken from pirates may, wherever they are found, be claimed by the true owner. vid. cap. seq. 4. 9. 4. or if the person who has again wrested them from the pirates can prove that the ownership of the thing had earlier been acquired by him by a lawful title. Nevertheless, to him who at his own expense has obtained possession of another's property, there is to be repaid, according to natural equity, only as much as the owner himself would willingly have spent on recovering the thing. For the mere factual possession, especially when difficult to recover, is something of value, and in this respect the owner, after the loss of the thing, is deemed to have become richer. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 2, 10, 9, & 3, 9, 16. Although in civil law or in the statutes and agreements of peoples these matters vary somewhat. Grot. d. loc. 17. & in Not. where he cites the Spanish and Venetian laws as testimony in this matter. vid. quoque Ius Lub. Lib. 6. t. 4. a. 2. & tit. 5. Laws of this kind, however, do not prevent foreigners from claiming their own property. This is also a useful rule, that if pirates put in at some harbor they are not permitted there to sell goods
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 139 bona spoliatorum, nec aliis emere, sed nivve & bonis istis sub arresto & tuta custodia positis, reserventur rapta in utilitatem læsorum & aliorum quorum interest, illis restituenda, si sufficientibus documentis, vel in eorum defectu jurata assertione probent esse sua vid. pact. commerc. inter Hen. R. Angl. & Philippum Burg. cap. 16. VIII. Piratæ capti & damnati, ultimo supplicio solent affici, eorumque bona publicari. quam generalem consuetudinem Pec- kius ad l.10. D. de inc. r. n. n. 3. vocat. Nec aliud meruerunt publicæ fidei violatores, & innocentium sanguinis ac fortunarum prædones. Si tamen ita invaluerint, ut formidabiles se fecerint, rectè recipi ac defendi, poenam quod attinet, censet Gro- tius de jur. b. e. p. 2, 21, 6. quia intersit humani generis, ut si aliter non possint, impunitatis fiducia à maleficiis devocentur. Sed aliud dicendum erit, si armis debellari possint vel ab illis, in quorum ditione grassantur; vel cum vicinorum Principum auxilio. Nec piratæ solùm, sed & receptatores eorum capitis poena obligantur. arg. l.3. ß.3. D. de inc. ruin. nauf. c.42. de viol. jur. reg. LL. prov. Sued. Pessimum enim genus hominum sunt receptatores, sine quibus diu nemo latere potest. Atque si apprehendere possint prædones istos, & tamen
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 139 the goods of plunderers are not to be bought by others, but, with these things under arrest and in safe custody, the seized goods are to be kept for the benefit of the injured party and others who have an interest in them, and are to be restored to them, if by sufficient documents, or, in default of these, by sworn assertion, they prove them to be theirs; see the commercial treaty between Hen. R. Angl. & Philippum Burg. cap. 16. VIII. Pirates, when captured and convicted, are usually punished with the ultimate penalty, and their goods are confiscated. Which general custom Pekkius, on l.10. D. de inc. r. n. n. 3., calls for. Nor have violators of public faith, and plunderers of innocent blood and fortunes, deserved anything else. If, however, they should have grown so powerful that they make themselves formidable, Grotius judges that they may rightly be received and resisted, as to punishment, de jur. b. e. p. 2, 21, 6., because it concerns the human race that, if they cannot otherwise be checked, they be turned away from crimes by the prospect of impunity. But another view must be taken if they can be subdued by arms, either by those in whose territory they ravage; or with the aid of neighboring princes. Nor are pirates alone, but also their harborers, liable to the penalty of death. arg. l.3. ß.3. D. de inc. ruin. nauf. c.42. de viol. jur. reg. LL. prov. Sued. For the harborers are the worst sort of men, without whom no one can long remain hidden. And if they can apprehend those plunderers, and yet
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Ioh. Loccenii 140 tamen pecunia vel subreptorum parte ab illis accepta eos dimittant, meritò severiori poena digni sunt arg. l.1. de recept. l.1. C. de his qui latr. vel al. cr. r.o. Quin & eo nomine urbes aliaque loca bello impetita & expugnata constat. Iulitoum in Pomerania, olim piratarum quoque receptaculum, V Valdemarus rex Daniæ expugnavit & solo æquavit. Hamburgenses agri Hadeleriani partem Septemtrionalem, in qua Ritzebuttela arx, præfecti sedes, sita est, juxta Albis ostium, ante ducentos amplius annos, inferioris Saxoniæ Ducibus armis ea occasione extorserunt, quod piraticam factitantes isthic soverent; ut refert Vbbo Emmius lib.2. rer. Frisic. CAP. IV. De jure postliminii navium. I. Vnde Postliminium dicatur. II. Quid illud sit. III. Num adhuc sit in usu. IV. Quæ naves aut res non habeant jus postliminii. V. Quæ habeant. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. Navis tempestate in communis amici portum acta, num habeat jus postliminii, si eam hostis cui ademta
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Ioh. Loccenii 140 However, if they let them go after money or a part of the stolen goods has been accepted from them, they are deservedly worthy of a more severe punishment, arg. l.1. de recept. l.1. C. de his qui latr. vel al. cr. r.o. Moreover, it is well established that, on that account also, cities and other places attacked and taken in war can be so treated. Iulitoum in Pomerania, once likewise a refuge of pirates, King Valdemar of Denmark captured and razed to the ground. The Hamburgers, from the northern part of the Hadeler land, in which the fortress Ritzebuttel, the seat of the prefect, is situated near the mouth of the Elbe, more than two hundred years ago, wrested by force from the dukes of Lower Saxony on that occasion, because they had been harboring pirates there; as Vbbo Emmius relates, lib. 2. rer. Frisic. CAP. IV. On the right of postliminium of ships. I. Whence postliminium is so called. II. What it is. III. Whether it is still in use. IV. Which ships or things do not have the right of postliminium. V. Which do have it. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. A ship driven by a storm into the port of a common friend, whether it has the right of postliminium, if the enemy to whom it was taken away
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 141 ademta est, postea repetitum veniat à communi amico. XI. Num res in hostium navibus repertæ, censendæ sint hostiles, & capientium fiant. ut & res hostiles cum amicorum navibus. I. Si verò naves nostræ ab hostibus aut piratis captæ sint, num jus postliminii habeant, è re est disquirere. Postliminium ita dictum est quasi postilimen, Scalig ad Festum in Postliminium; vel à post & limine, quod sit reditus in pristinum limen aut fines suos. Vnde eum qui ab hostibus captus est, & in fines nostros postea pervenit, postliminio reversum rectè dicimus. 5. Inst. quib. mod. jus pat. pot. solv. & Grot. de jur. b.e.p. lib. 3. c. 9. 1. 2. ubi de vocis origine plura. II. Postliminium ita describit Paulus IC. in l. 19. D. de capt. & post. rev. Postliminium est jus amissæ rei recipiendæ ab extraneo, & in pristinum statum restituendæ, internos ac liberos populos regesque, moribus legibusque constitutum. Nam quod bello amissimus, aut etiam citra bellum, hoc si recuperemus, dicimur postliminio recipere. Idque naturali æquitate introductum est, ut, qui per injuriam ab extraneis detinebatur, is ubi in fines suos redisset, pristinum jus reciperet, III. Etsi
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 141 taken away, and afterwards may be reclaimed from a common friend. XI. Whether things found in enemy ships are to be deemed hostile, and become the property of the captors. as also hostile goods with ships of friends. I. If indeed our ships have been captured by enemies or pirates, whether they have the right of postliminium is worth inquiring into. Postliminium is so called as though postilimen, Scaliger on Festus, in Postliminium; or from post and limen, because it is a return to one’s former threshold or boundaries. Hence we rightly say of one who has been captured by enemies and afterward comes into our boundaries, that he has returned by postliminium. 5. Inst. quib. mod. jus pat. pot. solv. & Grot. de jur. b.e.p. lib. 3. c. 9. 1. 2. where more on the origin of the word. II. Paul the jurist describes postliminium in l. 19. D. de capt. & post. rev. Postliminium is the right of recovering property lost from an outsider, and of restoring it to its former condition, established among free peoples and kings by custom and law. For what we have lost in war, or even without war, if we recover that, we are said to recover it by postliminium. And this has been introduced by natural equity, so that he who was detained by injury by outsiders, when he had returned into his own boundaries, might recover his former right, III. Although
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Ioh. Loccenii 142 III. Etsi de mobilibus (inter quæ etiam refertur navis l.20. ß.4. D. quod vi aut clam) generalis est regula, ut postliminio non redeant, sed in præda sint, tamen ab hac regula olim excepta fuere quæ in bello usum habent: ut recuperandi spe homines ad ea alacriores redderentur Grot. d. loc. ß.14. Hujusmodi sunt naves longæ & oneraria: non verò piscatoriæ, actuariæ & aliæ naves voluptatis caussa paratæ. (ic. in Topic. ÆEl. Gallus apud Festum in Postliminium. Marcellus in l.2. D. de captiv. e. p.r. Salmasius tamen in observat. ad Ius Attic. & Rom. pag. 740. etiam lusorias naves, sed ad belli usum paratas hoc jus habere notat. Sed scire, refert, num illi d jus postliminii, quale apud veteres erat, adhuc in usu sit. Equidem Grotius dicto loco ß.15. & 19. hoc jus hodie inter Christianos evanuisse notat, sublata ejus necessitate ob restitutam vim ejus cognationis quam natura inter homines esse voluit. Nisi quod locum habere possit, si res sit cum gentes tam barbara, ut sine indictione belli aut justa causa omnes externos & res eorum hostiliter tractare pro jure habeat. IV. Sed hodie naves ab hoste captæ, communi inter Christianos & Europæos populos sive jure sive consuetudine, postliminio non recipiuntur, si hostis eas non co-
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Ioh. Loccenii 142 III. Although, as regards movables, among which a ship is also reckoned (l. 20. §. 4. D. quod vi aut clam), the general rule is that they do not return by postliminium, but are to be counted as booty, nevertheless from this rule were formerly excepted those things which have use in war: so that men might be made the more eager to recover them, in hope of recovering them, Grotius, loc. cit. §. 14. Things of this kind are ships of war and cargo-ships; but not fishing-boats, pleasure-boats, and other ships prepared for amusement. (ic. in Topic. ÆEl. Gallus apud Festum in Postliminium. Marcellus in l. 2. D. de captiv. e. p.r. Salmasius, however, in Observations on Jus Attic. & Rom. p. 740, notes that even pleasure-boats, if fitted for warlike use, have this right. But it is important to know whether that right of postliminium, such as it was among the ancients, is still in use. Indeed Grotius, in the passage cited, §§ 15 and 19, notes that this right has today vanished among Christians, the necessity for it having been removed by the restoration of that bond of kinship which nature willed to exist among men. Unless it may have place where the matter concerns peoples so barbarous that, without declaration of war or just cause, they deem it lawful to treat all foreigners and their property as enemies. IV. But today ships captured by the enemy, by the common law or custom among Christians and European peoples, are not received back by postliminium, if the enemy does not co-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 143 eodem die navali pugna iterum amiserit, sed per viginti quatuor horas in potestate victoris fuerint. Tunc enim verè captæ & proprii juris factæ consentur. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 3. 6, 3. Cunæus in causa postliminii p. m. 266. 267. 273. 274. Græc[us] Iur. pub. c. 4. n. 25. Ea quæ piratæ nobis eripuerunt, non opus habent postliminio: quia jus gentium illis non concedit, ut jus dominii mutare possint. arg. l. 24. l. 27. D. de captiv. & post. r. quo innixi Athenienses Halonesum quam ipsis prædones, prædonibus Philippus eripuerat, ut redditam à Philippo, non ut donatam volebant accipere. Sic emendandum apud Grotium in mea edit. de jur. b. e. p. 3, 9, 16. pro redditas, & donatas, ut facile liquet. V. Si verò tales sint res, quæ aut se ipsas ingenio aut fuga aliave arte hosti subduxerint, aut virtute & vi militum nostrorum hostibus pulsis superatisve ereptæ iterum sint, aut ab hoste redemtæ, aut gratis dimissæ, si mox intra fines aut præsidia propria esse cæperint, aut si ad regem socium amicumve devenerint, non solum quoad personas, sed etiam ex paritate rationis, quoad res captas postliminio idoneas, statim postliminio rediisse videntur l. 5. ß. 1. l. 12. 19. ß. 3. l. 26. D. de capt. & postl. rev. Cunæus in causa postlim. p. m. 248. 249. & seqq.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 143 if on the same day by naval battle it has again been lost, but only after it has been in the victor's power for twenty-four hours. For then they are truly regarded as captured and made subject to another's ownership. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. 3. 6, 3. Cunæus in causa postliminii p. m. 266. 267. 273. 274. Græc[us] Iur. pub. c. 4. n. 25. Things which pirates have taken from us do not need postliminium: because the law of nations does not grant them the right to change ownership. arg. l. 24. l. 27. D. de captiv. & post. r. on which the Athenians relied concerning Halonesus, which Philip had taken from the pirates for them, so that they wished to receive it as returned by Philip, not as given. Thus it should be corrected in Grotius, in my edition, de jur. b. e. p. 3, 9, 16. for redditas and donatas, as is easily clear. V. But if the things are such as either by their own cleverness or by flight, or by some other contrivance, have escaped the enemy, or have again been taken away by the valor and force of our soldiers after the enemy has been driven off or overcome, or have been redeemed from the enemy, or freely released, if soon afterward they have begun to be within our own borders or garrisons, or if they have come to a king who is an ally or friend, not only with regard to persons, but also by parity of reasoning, with regard to captured things suitable for postliminium, they seem immediately to have returned by postliminium l. 5. ß. 1. l. 12. 19. ß. 3. l. 26. D. de capt. & postl. rev. Cunæus in causa postlim. p. m. 248. 249. & seqq.
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Ioh. Loccenii seqq. Idem p. 256. hoc commune jus gen- tium esse ait. VI. Sed quid si navis mercibus onusta hosti jure belli ademta & occupata, ad- versis ventis aut tempestate per plures dies nullo hoste insequente provecta, in com- munis amici portum devenerit, num repe- tens jus postliminii habebit, vel num licebit repetenti eam navem cum mercibus in ter- ritorio communis amici recipere, an verò occupantis erit & manebit? Posteriore sen- tentiam, quæ juri gentium & consuetudini convenientior, præ priori amplectendam arbitramur. Illam cum solidis rationibus & prolixè defenderit Cl. Cunæus in pecu- liari Dissertatione de causa postliminii, pro Genuensibus contra Turcas, quanta pos- sum brevitate contraham, & quod ad præ- sens institutum apprime faciat, cum non- nullis à me observatis hîc apponam. Ratio- nes autem præcipuæ hæ sunt: qui vi tem- pestatis repulsus fines proprios attingere nequit, si cum præda ab hoste capta ad regem aut rempub. sociam aut amicum confugerit, apud eundem tutum receptum habebit. Vt enim victor intra propria præ- sidia tutus est, ita si amici fidem elegerit, & in ejus præsidia se & sua contulerit, etiam illic publico nomine tutus erit arg. l. 19. ß. 3. de capt. & postl. r. Is verò cui res illæ jure belli
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Ioh. Loccenii following. The same, p. 256, says that this is a common law of nations. VI. But what if a ship laden with merchandise, taken from the enemy and कब्जied by right of war, driven by contrary winds or by a storm for several days without any enemy pursuing it, should come into the harbor of a common friend—will the captor have the right of postliminium upon reclaiming it, or will it be permitted for the claimant to take back that ship with its cargo within the territory of the common friend, or rather will it belong to and remain with the captor? We think the latter opinion, which is more in accord with the law of nations and with custom, should be preferred to the former. Although Cl. Cunæus has defended that view with sound reasons and at length in a special Dissertation on the cause of postliminium, for the Genoese against the Turks, I shall compress it as briefly as I can, and, since it is especially relevant to the present subject, I shall here add some observations of my own. The principal reasons are these: he who, repelled by the force of a storm, cannot reach his own borders, if with the booty captured by the enemy he has fled to a king or commonwealth allied or friendly, shall have a safe reception there. For as a victor is secure within his own defenses, so if he has chosen the faith of a friend, and has brought himself and his property into that friend’s defenses, he will even there be secure under public authority, arg. l. 19. § 3. de capt. & postl. r. But he to whom those things by right of war
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 145 belli ademtæ sunt, frustra eas in communis amici territorio repetitum venit. quod enim belliors occupanti dedit, in pacato loco apud communem amicum meritò sibi servabit; nisi aliter pactis conventum sit: ut quod alter bellantium ab altero captum in portum communis amici deduxerit, in eo postliminii jus sit. ut factum est in secundo foedere quod inter Romanos & Carthaginenses ictum refert Polybius lib. 3. his verbis: Si qui Carthaginensium aliquos ceperint, queiscum foedere scripto juncti sint Romani; qui tamen sub Romanorum imperio non erunt; hos in populi Romani portus ne deducunto. Carthaginiensibus & eorum amicis par jus fore, ibidem additur. VII. Qui verò nullo hujusmodi pacti vinculo obligatus ad communis amici, cui pax cum utraque parte est, portum pervenit, ex publica caussa tutus est. Et serum est atque inutile, hostem tentare in alieno territorio vi suum alteri adimere; aut cum communi amico agere, ut sibi restituat. Nihil enim hostile aut violentum vel ipse molietur, vel alterum agitare intra suos fines contra alterum patietur, quem fide publica in portum suum admilit. Dux Carthaginiensium abstinuit manum à Scipione in Syphacis portu, apud Livium lib. 28. Nec Syphax quicquam alterutri, quod G captum
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 145 If they have been taken away by war, it is in vain to come again demanding them in the territory of a common friend. For what war has granted to the captor, he will justly keep for himself in a place of peace with a common friend; unless it has been otherwise agreed by treaty: as where something captured by one of the belligerents from the other has been brought into the port of a common friend, there the right of postliminium shall exist. As was done in the second treaty, which Polybius reports to have been made between the Romans and Carthaginians, book 3, in these words: If any of the Carthaginians have captured any persons who are joined with the Romans by a written treaty, yet are not under the Roman dominion, let them not be brought into the ports of the Roman people. It is added there that the same right shall belong to the Carthaginians and their friends. VII. But whoever, not bound by any such obligation of treaty, arrives at the port of a common friend with whom peace exists on both sides, is safe by public right. And it is both late and useless to attempt, in another’s territory, by force to take from one what belongs to him; or to deal with the common friend so that he restore it to him. For neither will he himself undertake anything hostile or violent, nor will he allow another to act within his bounds against the other, whom he has admitted into his port under public faith. The Carthaginian commander withheld his hand from Scipio in the port of Syphax, according to Livy, book 28. Nor did Syphax do anything to either party, which had been captured
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Ioh. Loccenii 146 captum ante ab altero esset, ademisse & alteri restituisse dicitur. quippe hostilem actum ab extraneo exerceri in alieno portu & quidem communis amici, pugnat contra reverentiam, quæ portui alieno debetur, & communis amicitiæ respectum. Amicum verò ab justo hoste captum alteri auferre, ut alteri adjiciat, quid aliud erit, quam effectum rerum extra territorium suum utiliter ab amico gestarum, in territorio suo rescindere & inutilem reddere: & uni nocere, ut alteri profit? cum tamen utriusque partis amico jus utrique integrum relinquere fas sit. Et cum Princeps non solùm tanquam publicus hîc fidejussor sit, ut securè tutòque in ejus territorio vivatur, sed etiam violentiæ ultor adversus quoscunque, præstetque publicam apud se securitatem omnibus, non sinet foederatorum alteri vim fieri ab altero: multo minus ipse alterius foederati gratia vim faciet alteri: ne inde injuriarum occasio nascatur, unde remedia nascuntur l. meminerint Cod. unde vi. Et cum in portu communis amici utrique hosti tuta debeat esse statio, non videtur ea esse tuta, in qua alteri adimitur, quod jure belli in mari captum possidet. Cun. d. loc. p. 258, 259, 260, 261. ubi hoc firmat rebus judicatis Gallorum & Hollandorum, in paribus causis
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Ioh. Loccenii 146 if it had been captured before by another, it is said to have been taken away and restored to the other. For indeed, hostile action carried on by a stranger in another’s port, and indeed in that of a common friend, conflicts with the respect owed to another’s port and the regard due to common friendship. But to take away from one friend, captured by a lawful enemy, in order to add it to another, what else will it be, than to annul in one’s own territory and render useless the effect of things profitably done outside one’s territory by a friend; and to harm one, in order to benefit another? Yet it is fitting to leave to the friend of either party the right of both wholly intact. And since the Prince is not only here as a public surety, so that one may live safely and securely in his territory, but is also an avenger of violence against whomsoever, and provides public security in his own domain for all, he will not allow one confederate to be wronged by another; much less will he himself, for the sake of one confederate, use force against another: lest from this an occasion for injuries arise, from which remedies arise, l. meminerint Cod. unde vi. And since in the port of a common friend a safe station ought to be available to both enemies, it does not seem to be safe when from one is taken away what, having been captured at sea by the right of war, he possesses. Cun. d. loc. p. 258, 259, 260, 261, where he confirms this by decided cases of the French and Dutch, in similar causes.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 147 sis, ex communi jure gentium & civili decisis. VIII. Sed adferuntur argumenta in con- trariam sententiam. 1. ab hostibus capta non prius fieri capientium, quam intra præsidia deducta sint l. postliminiis 1. de captiv. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 3, 6, 3. 3, 9, 16. Alb. Gentil. advocat. Hisp. lib. I. c. 1. 2. 6. 7. At respondetur, istam legem postliminii loqui solùm de captis civibus eorumque servitute, secundum jus vetus recepta, non verò de cæteris rebus in bello captis, quæ jure gentium fiunt capientium per solam possessionis apprehensionem l. 5 1. de adq. rer. dom. l. 1. 1. de adq. vel. am. poss. Nec obstat, quod Cunæus alibi non solum per- sonas, sed & res captas ex paritate rationis huc refert. p. m. 249. Res enim tales in- telligit, quæ postliminio recipi possint. quod non semel in suo Responso de causa postlim. adserit, p. 248. 249 250. quid- quid verò clarissimi interpretes disputent de prædâ prius in præsidia deducendâ, quam fiat possidentis, aliud tamen consuetudine & moribus Europæorum hodie ob- servatur, ut nimirum præda capientium fiat, & præsertim naves hostium, de qui- bus hic sermo est, si à victore per diem & noctem possessæ fuerint, ut sup. h. cap. 1. IV. dictum est. G 2 IX. Ob-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 147 if so, are decided by the common law of nations and civil law. VIII. But arguments are brought forward in the contrary opinion. 1. Things captured from enemies do not become the captor’s until they have been brought within the lines of the garrison, l. postliminiis l. de captiv. Grotius, de jur. bell. e. p. 3, 6, 3. 3, 9, 16. Alb. Gentil. advocat. Hisp. lib. I. c. 1. 2. 6. 7. But it is answered that that law of postliminium speaks only of captured citizens and their servitude, according to the old accepted law, not indeed of other things captured in war, which by the law of nations become the captor’s by the mere act of taking possession, l. 5 1. de adq. rer. dom. l. 1. 1. de adq. vel. am. poss. Nor does it matter that Cunæus elsewhere refers not only persons, but also things captured, here on the basis of parity of reasoning, p. m. 249. For by such things he understands those which can be recovered by postliminium, which he more than once asserts in his Response on the cause of postliminium, p. 248, 249, 250. But whatever the most distinguished interpreters may dispute about booty’s having first to be brought into the lines before it becomes the possessor’s, nevertheless another practice is observed today by the custom and usage of Europeans: namely, that booty becomes the captors’, and especially enemy ships, of which there is here question, if they have been held by the victor for a day and a night, as stated above in this chapter, I. IV. G 2 IX. Ob-
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Ioh. Loccenii IX. Objicitur 2. quod exutus nave & mercibus hostis, tamen animum eas in continenti recuperandi retinuisse præsumatur: atque sic adhuc in possessione sit, si non quoad corpus, tamen affectionem l.3. §.6.l.8. D. de adq. vel amitt. poss. Sed ad hoc reponitur: Si quis vi & armis possessione dejectus sit, is utique eam amisit d.l.3. §.9. Præterea si quis statim animo recuperandæ prædæ hostem insecutus sit, & ita fugientis vestigia presserit, ut is, ubi iterum de præda jam jamque dimicandum cernit, in portum regis amici se recipiat; eo casu conflictus perdurasse, & animus possessionis in continenti recuperandæ adesse præsumitur; non verò, si quis nullo hoste insequente per dies plures prædam possederit, & intra amici portum deduxerit. Cun. p. 253. X. Objicitur 3. Non licere res hostiles captas per alienum territorium ducere. Alb. Gentil. lib. 1. Hisp. adv. c.6. & lib.2. de jur. belli c.22. quia mutato territorio, mutatur potestas: & ibi locum habet postliminium l.5. §.1.2. D. de capt. & postl. rev. vid. & Besold. de jure territ. c.3. n.4. Attamen mutato territorio, non mutatur fides & securitas publica, cujus causa, ceteris paribus, ubique favorabilis est. Et quousque postliminium hodie sit in usu, jam sup. §.3.4.5. dictum est. Sed utut sit, hoc tamen co
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Ioh. Loccenii IX. It is objected, second, that although the enemy, stripped of ship and merchandise, is nevertheless presumed to have retained the intention of recovering them on land: and thus to remain still in possession, if not as to the body, yet as to the intention, l.3. §.6. l.8. D. de adq. vel amitt. poss. But in reply to this it is said: If anyone has been driven from possession by force and arms, he has certainly lost it, d. l.3. §.9. Moreover, if anyone at once, with the intention of recovering his prey, has pursued the enemy, and has so pressed the traces of the fleeing one that the latter, when he sees that he must once more and immediately fight over the spoil, takes refuge in the harbor of a friendly king; in that case the conflict is presumed to have continued, and the intention of recovering possession on the spot is present; but not if someone, with no enemy pursuing, has possessed the spoil for several days, and has conveyed it into the harbor of a friend. Cun. p. 253. X. It is objected, third, that captured hostile goods may not be carried through another's territory. Alb. Gentil. lib. 1. Hisp. adv. c. 6. & lib. 2. de jur. belli c.22. because when the territory is changed, the authority is changed: and there postliminium has its place, l.5. §.1.2. D. de capt. & postl. rev. vid. & Besold. de jure territ. c.3. n.4. Nevertheless, although the territory be changed, public faith and security are not changed, for whose sake, other things being equal, it is everywhere favorable. And how far postliminium is today in use has already been said above, §§.3.4.5. But be that as it may, this however co
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 149 eo produci non potest, ut ob tempestatis causam & ex alia necessitate quis, cum præda justis armis in mari capta, in portu amici ad anchoras stare prohibeatur. quod tamen jus gentium permittit, & ex alterna humanitate proficiscitur, & inter innoxias utilitates est, quæ utenti commodæ, concedenti non molestæ sunt l. 1. ß. 11. de aq. pluv. Cunæus d. resp. 277. 278. 279. XI. Res in hostium navibus repertæ præsumuntur esse hostiles, donec contrarium probetur. Si verò probetur non esse hostiles, capientium non fiunt, etsi apud hostes inventæ: præsertim si domini hostium non sint subditi, nec hostilis animi. Si verò hostis in illis rebus jus aliquod habeat quod possessioni connectatur, ut pignoris, servitutis, retentionis, occupantibus adquiri possunt. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. lib. 3. c. 6. ß. 5. 6. 26. Sed nec amicorum naves in prædam veniunt ob res in illis hostiles; nisi ex consensu dominorum navis id factum sit arg. l. Cotem. II. D. de publican. Zuar. de usu mar. cons. 2. n. 6. alioqui res ipsæ solæ, non naves, in prædam veniunt. Grot. in Not. ad d. loc. ß. 6. G 3 CAP. V.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 149 it cannot be argued from this, that because of bad weather and from some other necessity, one, having a prize taken at sea by lawful arms, is prevented from lying at anchor in a friendly harbor. Yet this is permitted by the law of nations, and springs from mutual humanity, and is among those harmless conveniences which are useful to the one using them, and not troublesome to the one granting them. l. 1. §. 11. de aq. pluv. Cunæus d. resp. 277. 278. 279. XI. Things found in enemy ships are presumed to be hostile, until the contrary is proved. But if it is proved not to be hostile, they do not become the captors’ property, even if found among enemies, especially if the owners of the enemies are not subjects, nor of hostile intent. But if the enemy has in those things some right connected with possession, such as a pledge, servitude, or right of retention, they may be acquired by the occupiers. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. lib. 3. c. 6. §. 5. 6. 26. But the ships of friends also do not come into prize on account of hostile goods in them, unless this was done by the consent of the owners of the ship; arg. l. Cotem. II. D. de publican. Zuar. de usu mar. cons. 2. n. 6. otherwise the things themselves alone, not the ships, come into prize. Grot. in Not. ad d. loc. §. 6. G 3 CAP. V.
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150 Ioh. Loccenii CAP. V. De Aversione periculi, vulgò Adsecuratione. I. Vocum excussio. II. Veteribus non planè ignotum fuisse hunc contractum. hodie notiorem esse. III. Num sit licitus, & qualis. IV. Definitio ejus. V. Quid nomine periculi hîc veniat. VI. VII. VIII. Forma adsecurationis. IX. Quando incipiat & desinat. Assecurationis. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV XV. XVI. XVII. Quid & quantum hîc utrinque præstandum, vel non præstandum. XVIII. Satisfactio de periculi pretio. I. Offerunt se reliqua præsidia adversus navigationis periculum, & quidem ordine Aversio periculi, ita dicta, ut non obscurum est, quod aliquis alterius periculum in mari aversum it, aut in se recipit. Aliàs nuncupatur Sponsio, Lusitanis Apostæ, teste Petro Santerna Lusitano in Tractatu de Assecurat. vulgò Adsecuratio appellatur, & mercatoribus contractè Asseurantie; quod nimirum alter alterum ex convento securum reddat de periculo navis &
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150 Ioh. Loccenii CAP. V. On the Aversion of peril, commonly called Assurance. I. Explanation of the terms. II. That this contract was not entirely unknown to the ancients; that today it is better known. III. Whether it is lawful, and of what kind. IV. Its definition. V. What is here meant by peril. VI. VII. VIII. The form of assurance. IX. When assurance begins and ends. X. XI. XII. XIII. XIV. XV. XVI. XVII. What and how much must here be performed on either side, or not performed. XVIII. Satisfaction for the price of the peril. I. The remaining remedies against the peril of navigation present themselves, and indeed in this order: aversion of peril, so called, as is not obscure, because someone turns away another’s peril at sea, or takes it upon himself. It is otherwise called Sponsio, by the Portuguese Apostæ, according to Petrus Santerna, the Portuguese, in his Treatise on Assecuration; commonly it is called Adsecuratio, and by merchants contractually Asseurantie; because, namely, one by agreement makes the other secure against the peril of the ship &
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 151 & mercium. veluti securum aliquem facere dicimur, cavendo pro eo quod à nobis petiit l. 1. ff. qui satisf. cog. II. Hunc contractum olim vix cognitum, nunc inter receptissimos esse, notat Grotius de jur. b. e. p. 2, 12, 3. in fin. Veteribus tamen non planè ignorum fuisse constat ex illo Liviilib. XXIII. Vt quæ in naves imposuissent, ab hostium tempestatisque vi publico periculo essent. Simile quid lib. 25. Præcipuè ex isto Suetonii in V. Claudii c. 18. Negotiatoribus certa lucra propo[n]suit, suscepto in se damno, si cui quid per tèpestates accidisset. Inprimis apud mercatores hodie receptissimus est, & magis illorum foro quam juri R. aliive cognitus. Idcirco non ægrè feret Lector, si non solùm quæ à Iurisconsultis de hoc argumento observata, sed etiam quæ statutis florentissimorum emporiorum & praxi mercatorum recepta sunt, breviter annotem. quæ sequi ita licebit, quatenus ipsi æquitati, consuetudini regionum legibusque non refragantur. eadem pro rerum, temporum & locorum conditione justè moderari ac dispensari superiorum authoritate integrum erit. III. Est hic contractus licitus: quia sit de relicta, & ex pacto legitimo: dum unus in se suscipit sortis periculum, quam alteri salvam præter etiam cum conditione lucri G 4 licet
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 151 & merchandise. Thus we are said to make someone secure, by guaranteeing for him that which he has asked from us l. 1. ff. qui satisf. cog. II. This contract, once scarcely known, is now noted by Grotius de jur. b. e. p. 2, 12, 3. in fin. Yet it is clear that it was not entirely unknown to the ancients, from that passage in Livy, book XXIII: That what they had placed in ships should be exposed to public risk from the violence of enemies and of the weather. Something similar in book 25. Especially from that passage of Suetonius in the Life of Claudius, c. 18. He promised merchants fixed profits, having taken upon himself the loss, if anything should happen to anyone through storms. Above all, it is now most commonly received among merchants, and is known more in their forum than in the civil law or any other. Therefore the reader will not take it amiss if I note briefly not only what the jurists have observed on this subject, but also what has been received by the statutes of the most flourishing ports and by the practice of merchants. These things may thus be followed, so far as they do not conflict with equity itself, the customs of the regions, and the laws. In the same way, according to the condition of affairs, times, and places, it will be entirely proper for those in authority to regulate and dispense with them justly. III. This contract is lawful: because it is of a relinquished thing, and from a lawful agreement: since one party undertakes upon himself the risk of the principal, while the other has it safe for him, moreover with the condition of gain G 4 licet
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152 Ioh. Loccenii licet minoris, pro certo pretio suscipienti in se periculum solvendo. Et hoc fit citra labem usurariam, & fraudem ullam. Etsi enim illi, cui sors salva, minus lucrum accedit, majus illi qui periculum in se recipit, tamen idem respondebit periculo, arbitrio boni viri. Et est contractus quidam separatus à mutuo, uti fusè ostendit Zoesius in Commentario ad Digesta tit. Pro socio n. 25. Etsi verò P. Santerna part. 1 de Assecurat. n. 7. velit transire in formam emtionis & venditionis, ob pretium quod datur ratione periculi; quia tamen non habet plenè naturam emti venditi; dum convenitur quidem de pretio, non verò pro merce aut re quadam vendenda, sed pro periculi aversione præstando, potius est contractus innominatus, aut præscriptis verbis Facio ut des; ut: suscipio periculum, ut des pecuniam; vel, ut alii volunt, stipulatio Bald. in l. 1. col. 4. C. de SS. Trin. Molin. de Vsur. q. 3. n. 92. 98. Grot. d loc. Tabor Partit. elem. jur. 3, 4, 38. IV. Sit ejus talis descriptio: quod sit Aversio periculi stipulatio vel cautio idonea de præstanda indemnitate rei vel sortis alienæ circa casus fortuitos, pro certo periculi pretio. V. Sub nomine periculi, de quo sit cautio, comprehenditur omnis casus qui accidit in
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152 Ioh. Loccenii though it be less, to the one who, for a fixed price, takes upon himself the risk in exchange for payment. And this is done without any usurious taint or any fraud. For although the one whose principal is safe receives less profit, a greater profit goes to the one who assumes the risk; yet he will answer for the risk according to the judgment of a good man. And it is a certain contract separate from a loan, as Zoesius fully shows in his Commentary on the Digest, title Pro socio no. 25. Although indeed P. Santerna, part. 1 de Assecurat. no. 7, wishes it to pass into the form of a sale and purchase, because of the price that is given on account of the risk; nevertheless, since it does not fully have the nature of buying and selling, while an agreement is indeed made about a price, but not about some merchandise or thing to be sold, but for the averting of risk to be provided, it is rather an innominate contract, or one expressed by the prescribed words Facio ut des: as, I undertake the risk, so that you may give money; or, as others hold, a stipulation. Bald. in l. 1. col. 4. C. de SS. Trin. Molin. de Vsur. q. 3. n. 92. 98. Grot. d loc. Tabor Partit. elem. jur. 3, 4, 38. IV. Let its description be as follows: that it is an aversion of risk, a stipulation or suitable security for providing indemnity for another’s property or principal, in regard to fortuitous events, for a fixed price of risk. V. Under the name of risk, with respect to which security is given, is comprehended every accident that occurs in
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 153 in mari à tempestate, ab hostibus, prædonibus, repræsaliis ut vocant, aliisque modis usitatis & inusitatis, citra fraudem & culpam centrahentium, aut domini mercium vel navis. Grot. introd. jur. Holl. part. 24. VI. Adsecuratio (liceat vulgo receptam vocem retinere) vel putè & simpliciter, vel sub certis conditionibus, ut plerumque, fit arg. l.4. 5. D. de naut. foen. & cum certi pro periculo pretii stipulatione. Assecuratio simpliciter facta de primâ navigatione intelligi debet. Santerna p. 3. de Assec. n. 30. & seqq. Sermo enim simpliciter prolatus de uno & primo actu accipiendus est arg. l.89. §. 1. D. de verb. signif. Periculi pretium ex communi æstimatione peti solet. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 23. Licet autem de eo inter contrahentes ex æquo & bono vel arbitrio bonorum virorum convenire possit, tamen ex mercatorum consuetudine communiter septem pro centum, præmii assecurationis loco, pacisci moris est. Vid. artic. 1. Const. de solut. pram assecur. in Privileg. Amst. p. m. 197. col.1. & in ordinat. Anntverp. de Assecur. pag. 445. Sed cum in Formulâ Assecurationis secundum hodiernum mercatorum stylum conceptâ, quæ exstat in dictis Privil. præcipua contineantur, quæ spectant ad substantiam hujus contractus, eam ex Belgico in Latinum ser- G 5 monem
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 153 in the sea, from storms, enemies, pirates, reprisals, as they are called, and other usual and unusual means, without fraud or fault of the contracting parties, or of the owner of the goods or of the ship. Grot. introd. jur. Holl. part. 24. VI. Insurance, if one may retain the commonly received term, is made either simply and without qualification, or under certain conditions, as most often happens, arg. l.4. 5. D. de naut. foen. & cum certi pro periculo pretii stipulatione. Insurance made simply must be understood as concerning the first voyage. Santerna p. 3. de Assec. n. 30. & seqq. For speech uttered simply is to be taken as referring to one and the first act, arg. l.89. §. 1. D. de verb. signif. The price of the risk is usually sought from common estimation. Grot. de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 23. But although concerning this the contracting parties may agree on an equal and fair basis, or by the judgment of good men, nevertheless, according to the custom of merchants, it is commonly customary to bargain for seven per cent, as the premium for insurance. Vid. artic. 1. Const. de solut. pram assecur. in Privileg. Amst. p. m. 197. col.1. & in ordinat. Anntverp. de Assecur. pag. 445. But since in the Form of Insurance, composed according to the present-day merchant style, which is found in the said Privileges, the principal matters are contained, which concern the substance of this contract, I shall from the Dutch into the Latin ser- G 5 language
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Ioh. Loccenii 154 monem versam hîc in gratiam lectoris ap- ponere placuit: Nos subscripti promittimus & obligamus nos ad avertendum periculum, vel (ut vulgò loquuntur) assecurandum, velut assecuramus omnes & singuli tenore hujus viris NN. ad summam mercium subjectam NN. in corpus navis cum tormentis suis, instrumentis, alio- que apparatu & huic adhæren tibis, pertinen- tis ad NN. vel alium. Navi nomen est NN. capax amphorarum NN. cuius magister est NN. Illius periculum præstabimus ab hora & die, quo solverit dicta navis, & appulerit cum tormentis, munitione, instrumentis, & que eis annexa sunt in portum NN. (vel ut a- liæ quæda Formulæ habent: ab hora & die, quo prædictæ merces deportatæ sunt in portum NN. vel navalia, inferen li dictæ navi caussa. & durabit isthæc assecuratio, donec dictæ mer- ces pervenerint in portum NN. & exoneratæ atque in salvo fuerint, absque ullo detrimento & incommodo.) Nominatæ autem navi lice- bit navigare prorsum, rursum, dextrorum, lx- vorum, & ab omni latere; atque ex necessi- tate vel sponte ingredi tales portus, qui nau- clero & nautis commodi bonique videbuntur. Cavemus etiam vobis de omni periculo maris, tempestate, igni & vento, amicis, inimicis, arrestis & detentionibus à Rege, Principe, Repub. quacunque faciendis, de represaliis; de nequitia
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Ioh. Loccenii 154 It seemed good here to add a version turned into the reader’s favor: We, the undersigned, promise and bind ourselves to avert the risk, or, as they commonly say, to insure; and thus we do insure all and each, by the tenor of this, for the persons NN., to the amount of merchandise set down NN., in the body of the ship, with its cannon, instruments, and other apparatus, and the things attached to it, belonging to NN. or another. The name of the ship is NN., capable of NN. amphoras, whose master is NN. We shall bear its risk from the hour and day when the said ship shall depart and arrive, with the cannon, ordnance, instruments, and whatever is annexed to them, in the port of NN. (or, as some other formulas have it: from the hour and day when the aforesaid goods shall have been conveyed into the port of NN. or the dockyards, for the purpose of being loaded onto the said ship. And this insurance shall continue until the said goods have arrived in the port of NN. and have been unloaded and kept safe, without any loss or damage.) But the ship named above may sail straight on, back again, to the right, to the left, and on every side; and, if necessary or of its own will, enter such ports as shall seem convenient and advantageous to the shipmaster and sailors. We also guarantee you against every danger of the sea, storm, fire, and wind, friends and enemies, arrests and detentions to be made by a King, Prince, or any Republic whatever, against reprisals; against the malice
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 155 nequitia vel incuria naucleri & nautarum, aliisque casibus qui huic navi contingere possint, cogitatis vel incogitatis, usitatis vel inusitatis, nullis exceptis. Nos vestri loco constituimus, ad vos tutos præstandos ab omni damno & incommodo. Atque si prædictæ navi malum (quod Deus avertat) acciderit, obstringimus nos hoc ipso vobis vel vestris mandatariis ad omne detrimentum, quod passi estis, resarciendum, nimirum singuli pro rata summæ nominatæ, tam primus quam ultimus assecurator, idque intra proximum trimestre, ex quo, ut decet, certiores facti fuerimus de periculo & damno. In quo casu damus vobis & aliis omnibus plenam potestatem, tam ad damnum quam lucrum nostrum vobis invicem suppetias ferendi, in servanda prædicta navi eique annexis, in onerando vel exonerando, in juvando quibus opus fuerit, aut vendenda nave pretioque ejus distribuendo, si res ita postulet, absque exspectatione nostri consensus & veniæ. Solvemus etiam expensas cum causâ damni dati, sive quid servatum fuerit, sive minus & de expensis factis fidem habebimus ei, qui illas fecit, ad præstitum ab ipso juramentum absque omni contradictione. Contenti etiam sumus, ut NN. velut nobis fidem dedit, solvat nobis pretium aversi periculi vel assecurationis, post tres proximè sequentes menses, nimirum septem (vel NN.) pro centum. Vt verò G 6
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On Maritime Law, Book II. 155 through the negligence or carelessness of the shipmaster and sailors, and by other accidents which may befall this ship, whether foreseen or unforeseen, usual or unusual, none excepted. We have placed ourselves in your stead, to secure you against every loss and inconvenience. And if the aforesaid ship should suffer harm (which God avert), we bind ourselves hereby to you or to your agents to make good all damage which you have suffered, namely each in proportion to the named sum, as well the first as the last assurer, and that within the next quarter, from the time when, as is proper, we shall have been made aware of the danger and loss. In which case we give you and all others full authority, both regarding our loss and gain, to render mutual assistance to one another in preserving the aforesaid ship and her appurtenances, in loading or unloading, in aiding those who need it, or in selling the ship and distributing its price, if the matter so require, without waiting for our consent and permission. We shall also pay the expenses arising from the cause of the loss, whether anything was saved or not; and we shall accept as proof of the expenses incurred the word of him who made them, supported by his oath, without any contradiction. We are also content that NN., as he has given us his pledge, shall pay us the price of the risk transferred or of the insurance, after the three next following months, namely seven (or NN.) per hundred. But
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156 Ioh. Loccenii verò omnis prolixitas evitetur, æquè æstimabimus observabimusque hunc Assecurationis contractum, atque si coram Iudicibus factus esset; & tam firmum ac ratum habebimus, atque si omnes in eo clausulæ ita essent formatæ, ut sibi quisquam eas imaginari posset, in vestrum commodum & nostrum detrimentum. Omnia absque fraude & dolo &c. In rei fidem obligamus nostras personas & facultates tam præsentes quam futuras, renunciantes, ut honestos homines decet, omnibus cavillationibus & exceptionibus, quæ huic contracui adversæ esse possint. Ætum. NN. VII. Assecurationem in scriptum, ut solet redactam oportet exprimere nomen nautæ, navis, ubi onerata sit, què navigare velit. Item determinare mercium qualitatem, quantitatem, numerum & mensuram, & quidem bona fide factam in navibus amicorum (non hostium) in præsentia testium, aut coram Notario & publicis personis. Non etiam sunt dissimulandæ merces, aut plures quam revera in navi sunt, fingendæ. Suscipiens enim periculum pro iis solum tenetur, quæ tempore periculi aut naufragii in navi fuerunt. Nec alienæ pro suis assecurationi offerendæ sunt, nec vetitæ & illicitæ pro licitis indicandæ; pro quibus si forte ab ignorantè promissore periculi cautum sit, is cui cau-
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156 Ioh. Loccenii indeed all prolixity being avoided, we shall equally esteem and observe this contract of Assecuration, as if it had been made before Judges; and we shall hold it as firm and valid, as if all the clauses in it had been so framed that anyone might imagine them, to your advantage and our detriment. All without fraud and deceit, etc. In testimony of the matter we bind our persons and estates, both present and future, renouncing, as honest men ought, all cavils and exceptions which may be adverse to this contract. Ætum. NN. VII. An assurance, as is customary, drawn up in writing ought to specify the name of the sailor, the ship, where it is loaded, and to what place it wishes to sail. It should also determine the quality, quantity, number, and measure of the merchandise, and indeed it should be made in good faith on ships of friends (not enemies) in the presence of witnesses, or before a Notary and public persons. Nor should goods be concealed, or more be falsely represented than are truly in the ship. For the one who assumes the risk is liable only for those things which at the time of the peril or shipwreck were in the ship. Nor are goods belonging to others to be offered for insurance as if they were one’s own, nor prohibited and unlawful goods to be represented as lawful; for which, if by chance security for the risk has been promised by an ignorant promiser, he to whom the cau-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib II. 157 cautum est ad earum æstimationem agere prohibetur: quia in dolo fuit; aut si integræ & salvæ domum venerint, susceptori periculi pretium pro iis petenti non denegabitur. ille enim bona fide pactus est. Santer. p. 3. n. 13. seq. 43. seqq. Tormenta & apparatum bellicum assecurare volens, vel etiam carinam, hæc omnia ante discessum à peritis æstimari curabit. quæ tamen æstimationio non præjudicabit aversori periculi, si probare possit, æstimationem ex affectu, collusione aut alia mala arte majorem æquo factam esse. art. 10. Ordinat. Antverp. de Assecur. VIII. In hoc contractu bona fide versandum est, ut natura ultro citroque obligationis postulat. dolus commissus cum æstimatione damni arbitrariè puniri solet, vel gravius pro ratione delicti. Itaque in fraudem primi Assecuratoris vel emolumentum assecurati bona non cavebuntur uno inscio pluribus locis, aut supra constitutum. Vel si citra fraudem pluribus locis assecurata sint, prior assecuratio velut sufficiens pro omnibus bonis solum rata erit. vid. fusius art. 14. 1 5. ordin. Antverp. Vltimus assecurator tantum in aversione periculi participabit, quantum primus, sive damnum sit sive luerum. art. 23. Assec. Amst. Si contrahentium alter rem de qua agitur,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 157 it is provided; an action for their valuation is forbidden: because there was fraud; or if they come home intact and safe, to the person undertaking the risk, payment for them when demanded will not be refused. For he made the agreement in good faith. Santer. p. 3. n. 13. seq. 43. seqq. Whoever wishes to insure cannon and military equipment, or even the keel, will take care that all these things, before departure, be appraised by experts. Yet such an appraisal shall not prejudice the insurer against risk, if he can prove that the appraisal was made at an excessive value, through favoritism, collusion, or some other dishonest practice. art. 10. Ordinat. Antverp. de Assecur. VIII. In this contract one must act in good faith, as the nature of the mutual obligation requires. Fraud committed together with the valuation of the damage is usually punished at discretion, or more severely according to the gravity of the offense. Therefore, to the injury of the first insurer or the advantage of the insured, goods shall not, without the knowledge of one, be insured in several places, or for more than the agreed amount. Or if, without fraud, they are insured in several places, the first insurance alone shall be held valid as sufficient for all the goods. vid. fusius art. 14. 15. ordin. Antverp. The last insurer shall participate in the transfer of the risk only to the same extent as the first, whether there be loss or profit. art. 23. Assec. Amst. If one of the contracting parties the thing in question,
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Ioh. Loccenii 158 agitur, aut salvam quo destinabatur pervenisse aut periisse sciverit: quia propria materia hujus contractus est damnum sub ratione incerti, contractus erit nullius momenti. Grot. 2, 12, 23. Elb. Leonin. consil. 22. n. 7. Excipe tamen si assecuratus sibi caveri curasset in eventum boni aut mali nuntii: in quo casu assecuratio rata erit, si susceptor periculi probare nequeat, ei cui cautum est ante cautionem constitisse de damno aut jactura, & assecuratus vel is cui cautum est ab ea suspicione se juramento liberare paratus sit (art. 6. 21. Ord. Amst. de Assecur.) Si assecurator sit factus malæ fidei, ejus contractui renuntiari & de integro cum alio contrahi potest. Vel si, antequam factus malæ fidei, sit suspectus de non solvendo, cautionem cautionis præstare debet, ut dominus mercium servetur indemnis, ad similitudinem fidejussoris indemnitatis. arg. l. decem. 116. de V. O. l. 8. §. 12. D. de fidejuss. Santern. d. loc. n. 55. 56. IX. Assecuratio initium habebit à tempore mercium in navalia translatarum ut imponantur navi, & durabit usque dum merces in destinato portu salvæ sint exoneratæ, nisi aliter convenerit: aut aliud lege definitum sit. Exoneratio verò non ultra quindecim dies (nisi cum periculo domini) differetur, exceptis necessariis obstaculis, quæ
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Ioh. Loccenii 158 it is in question, or whether he knew that it had reached the place to which it was destined safely, or had been lost: because the proper subject matter of this contract is damage under the aspect of uncertainty, the contract will be of no effect. Grot. 2, 12, 23. Elb. Leonin. consil. 22. n. 7. However, except where the insured has taken care to secure himself in the event of good or bad news: in which case the insurance will be valid, if the party assuming the risk cannot prove that, before the security, the person for whom the guarantee was given had already become aware of the loss or damage, and the insured, or the person for whom the guarantee was given, is prepared to free himself from that suspicion by oath (art. 6. 21. Ord. Amst. de Assecur.) If the insurer has become of bad faith, notice may be given to terminate his contract, and a new contract may be made with another. Or if, before becoming of bad faith, he is suspected of insolvency, he must provide security for the security, so that the owner of the goods may be kept harmless, in the same way as a surety for indemnity. arg. l. decem. 116. de V. O. l. 8. §. 12. D. de fidejuss. Santern. d. loc. n. 55. 56. IX. The insurance shall begin from the time when the goods are transferred to the dockyards to be loaded onto the ship, and shall last until the goods have been safely unloaded at the designated port, unless otherwise agreed: or unless otherwise defined by law. But unloading shall not be delayed beyond fifteen days (unless at the risk of the owner), except for necessary obstacles, which
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De Iure Maritimo Lib II. 159 quæ probanda. art. 13 Assecur. Antverp. Si assecuratio ab uno portu ad alium facta sit, absque mentione mercium in terram exonerandarum, inchoabitur à tempore impositarum navi mercium, & finietur tempore navis destinatum portum ingressæ: cum ibi stetit in salvo ad anchoras per vi- ginti quatuor horas. d art. 13. quod eo sine inter mercatores observari probabile est, quia navis in ipso quoque portu vel ostio periclitari, ut dicitur in l.4. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, & aliquando pati potest, secundum illud Propertii lib. 3. el. 6 Fallit portus & ipse fidem, nec semper verum est, quod Anacharlis per- contanti, quæ securissima navis esset, respon- dit: Ea quæ in portum venit. Proinde ad diem & noctem pro damno in portu, donec mer- ces in salvo sint caveri voluerunt constitu- tiones. Assecutatio non ad præteritum sed futurum & imminens periculum & da- mnum extenditur. Nam præteriti periculi susceptio ac rerum jam deperditarum pro- missa securitas, ex juris communis disposi- tione non habet vires: tum quia res, ad quam sit securitatis promissæ relatio, tem- pore quo sit promissio non existit, aut non est in nostro commercio: tum quia nihil continet præter aleæ ac vanæ sponsionis speciem, quæ non fundatur super aliqua justa
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De Iure Maritimo Lib II. 159 things to be proved. art. 13 Assecur. Antverp. If insurance is made from one port to another, without mention of the goods to be discharged onto land, it shall begin from the time the goods are placed on board the ship, and shall end at the time the ship enters the destined port: when it has stood there safely at anchor for twenty-four hours. d art. 13. which, without this, among merchants it is probable is observed, because a ship may be endangered in the port itself or at the mouth, as is said in l.4. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, and may sometimes suffer, according to that of Propertius lib. 3. el. 6 The harbor itself deceives trust, nor is it always true what, when Anacharsis was asked which ship was the safest, he answered: That which has come into port. Therefore, as to day and night, they wished by constitutions that provision be made for damage in port, until the goods are safely ashore. Insurance extends not to the past but to future and imminent danger and damage. For the assumption of past danger and a promised security for things already lost, by the disposition of the common law does not have force: both because the thing to which the promised security refers does not exist at the time when the promise is made, or is not in our commerce: and because it contains nothing other than the appearance of chance and a vain wager, which is not founded upon any just
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Ioh. Loccenii 160 justa causa, sed duntaxat super inopinata & inconsulta captione alterius contrahentium: quæ tanquam reip. damnosa, & ad inconsultos contractus respiciens, à jure non probatur: maximè si pura sit, nec conditionem pro causa habeat. Dd. in l à Titio D. de V. O. t. in l. quibus D. de aleat. Elb. Leonin. cons. 22. n. 2. 3. 4. Imò si conditionem adjectam habeat, tamen conditio in præteritum collata nulla est l. 10. §. 1. D. de condit. Inst. sed vel statim perimit obligationem, vel omnino non differt. §. 6. Inst. de V. O. l. 100. D. eod. Attamen si in præteriti damni notitiam non pervenerit assecurans, permittitur talis assecuratio, in Constit. Amsterod. art. 20. de Assecur. non verò quæ fit in sponsionem vitæ hominum aut itineris art. 24. X. Aversor periculi vel asseurator, ex conventa conditione se generaliter ad pericula maris aut navigationis obligans, de quovis casu etiam improviso tenetur; nisi culpa domini mercium aut navis intervenit, ut sup. dixi §. 5. ut si non fecerit quod diligens & cautus faceret, aut quod ex pacto debet: si quid per negligentiam, imperitiam aut moram admiserit. Itaque si assecurator caverit de periculo respectu illius temporis, quo navigatio minus erat periculosa: navarchus autem vel dominus na- VIS
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Ioh. Loccenii 160 There is just cause, but only in the case of an unexpected and unadvised taking of one of the contracting parties: which, as harmful to the republic and bearing on improvident contracts, is not approved by law; especially if it be pure and have no condition as its cause. Dd. in l. à Titio D. de V. O. t. in l. quibus D. de aleat. Elb. Leonin. cons. 22. n. 2. 3. 4. Indeed, if it have an added condition, yet a condition referred to the past is void, l. 10. §. 1. D. de condit. Inst. but it either immediately destroys the obligation, or else does not defer it at all. §. 6. Inst. de V. O. l. 100. D. eod. Nevertheless, if the assurer has not come to know of the past loss, such assurance is permitted, in Constit. Amsterod. art. 20. de Assecur. but not that which is made by way of a pledge upon the lives of men or a journey, art. 24. X. The one averse to danger, or the assurer, being bound by an agreed condition generally to the perils of the sea or navigation, is liable for every case, even unforeseen; unless the fault of the owner of the goods or of the ship intervenes, as I said above in §. 5, as if he had not done what a diligent and cautious man would do, or what he owes by agreement: if he has allowed anything through negligence, inexperience, or delay. Therefore if the assurer has covered the danger in respect of that time, in which navigation was less dangerous: but the shipmaster or the owner of the ship
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 161 vis ob frivolam causam vel per negligentiam distulerit navigationem in alienum tempus, navigationi valde incommodum: & sic obortâ procellâ merces cum navi perierint, non erit hoc periculo assecuratoris, sed domini navis, nisi aliud convenerit. Mora enim cuique sua, non alii nocere debet. Reg. Iur. Can. 25. Item si contra pactum navarchus mutaverit destinatum iter, absque necessitate, lucri sui causa; idque inscio aut invito periculi susceptore; aut navigarit mare infestum piratis vel hoste, idque præsciverit, sed nolente & excipiente hunc casum assecuratore: vel non dirigens cursum ad eum portum de quo convenerat, navem illicitis mercibus onerarit, quæ publicatæ sunt, ad id non tenebitur assecurator arg. l. 3. C. de naut. foen. Item si magister navis extra directum cursum proprio consilio, non compulsus tempestate jactum fecerit, non erit periculo assecurantis. quia ad pericula in ordinariâ viâ contingentia se obstrinxit, vel ad extraordinaria pericula ex necessitate, non culpa nautæ accidentia. Hic itaque mercator regressum habebit ad nautam. quintin. V Veitf. de contrib. p. m. 465. col. 1. Ille verò dolus etiam poenâ arbitriâ dignus est, si is cui præstatur ab alio periculum, fraude sua effecerit, ut res in navi perirent, & ementitus sit, casu vel naufragio
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 161 If, through a frivolous cause or through negligence, he has delayed the voyage to another time, greatly inconvenient for navigation; and if, when a storm has arisen, the goods together with the ship have perished, this loss shall not fall upon the insurer, but upon the owner of the ship, unless something else has been agreed. For delay ought to prejudice the person whose delay it is, not another. Reg. Iur. Can. 25. Likewise, if contrary to the agreement the master of the ship has changed the intended route, without necessity, for the sake of his own gain; and this without the knowledge or against the will of the person undertaking the risk; or if he has sailed on a sea infested by pirates or an enemy, and had foreknowledge of this, but the insurer was unwilling and excepted this case: or, not directing his course to the port agreed upon, he has loaded the ship with unlawful goods, which have been confiscated, the insurer shall not be liable for that, arg. l. 3. C. de naut. foen. Likewise, if the master of the ship, outside the direct course, by his own decision, not compelled by storm, has made a jettison, the insurer shall not be at risk; because he bound himself to the dangers occurring in the ordinary course, or to extraordinary dangers only as they happen by necessity, not through the fault of the sailor. Therefore the merchant here will have recourse against the sailor. quintin. V Veitf. de contrib. p. m. 465. col. 1. But that fraud is also worthy of arbitrary punishment, if the person for whom insurance is provided against the risk of another, through his own fraud, has caused the goods to perish in the ship, and has falsely claimed that it was by accident or shipwreck
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Ioh. Loccenii 162 fragio periisse: ne ipse, sed alter qui cavit de periculo, damnum subeat. Velut olim qui- dam publicani apud Romanos Posthumius & L. Pomponius fecere, cum populus R. cavisset de periculo à vi tempestatis, in re- bus portatis ad exercitus Rom. illi emen- titi sunt facta naufragia; & ea ipsa quæ ve- ra renunciaverant, fraude ipsorum facta erant, non casu. in veteres enim quassatas- que naves paucis & parvi pretii rebus im- positis, cum mersissent eas in alto, exceptis in præparatas scaphas nautis, multiplices fuisse merces ementiebantur. cujus fraudis populus severus vindex fuit, ut refert Li- vius lib. xxv. XI. Aliàs ex jactu mercium tenetur asse- curator vel receptor periculi, quia jactus & perditio propter casum æquiparantur l.4. ff. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Cum autem locus sit contributioni propter istum ja- ctum, sublevabitur assecurator in tanto minus solvendo, quam dominus fuerit consecutus. Santerna part. 4. de Assecur. n.44. XII. Ex casu contingente in ipsa navi culpa magistri navis, ut si merces non bene reconditæ, nec diligenter servatæ, ab hu- more aut muribus corruptæ fuerinr, inde non assecuratorem, sed navarchum teneri volunt. Si verò merces à tempestate aut pro-
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Ioh. Loccenii 162 shipwreck: not he himself, but another who took care of the danger should bear the loss. Just as formerly certain publicans among the Romans, Posthumius and L. Pomponius, acted when the Roman people had provided against danger from a storm: in matters carried for the Roman army, they falsely reported shipwrecks; and those very goods which they had announced as genuinely lost had in fact been destroyed by their own fraud, not by accident. For on old and damaged ships they placed a few and low-value goods; then, after sinking them in deep water, the sailors being taken off into prepared boats, they falsely claimed that the cargo had been manifold. Of this fraud the severe people was the avenger, as Livy relates, book xxv. XI. Otherwise, from the casting overboard of goods the insurer or receiver of the risk is liable, because jettison and loss are treated as equivalent by accident, l.4. ff. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. But since there is a place for contribution on account of such jettison, the insurer will be relieved by so much less as the owner shall have recovered. Santerna, part. 4 de Assecur., no. 44. XII. From an accident occurring in the ship itself through the fault of the shipmaster, as if the goods, not being properly stowed and not diligently guarded, were damaged by damp or by mice, they hold that the liability lies not with the insurer, but with the shipmaster. But if the goods are damaged by storm or by ...
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 163 procella humidæ & corruptæ fuerint, inde tenebitur assecurator. Quint. V Veitf. de Con- trib. p. 460. in fin. XIII. Quod verò Santerna part. 4. de Assecur. n. 19. & seqq. statuit, damnum terti nimirum gubernatoris culpa datum non liberare assecutorem à præstatione periculi: quia factum tertii non impediat obligationem committi; certum quidem est ita jure fieri, si se generaliter ad omnes casus etiam culpa nautæ datos obligarit. Aliàs non nisi de casib. fortuitis tenetur; nec de culpa gubernatoris; sed ipse nauclerus, si (ut in præsenti casu) non idoneo gubernatori navem commiserit l. 16. D: de rei vindic. conf. art. 27. Assec. Amst. XIV. Si in una & eadem navigatione merces transferantur ex una navi in aliam, & novissima deperdatur cum mercibus, num promissor vel assecurator tenebitur de tali periculi eventu. Hîc inspicienda est forma assecurationis, an in ea mentio sit facta novissimæ navis, an minus. Si mentio facta sit, utique ex lege conventionis tenetur, modo absque dolo & culpa alterius iste casus acciderit. Si mentio non facta sit, non tenetur. Si tamen merces in scapham trajectæ fuerint navis onustæ levandæ causa, quia intrare flumen vel portum non poterat, ut magna navigia portibus se grava- tim
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 163 if, through the storm, they have become wet and damaged, the insurer shall be liable. Quint. V Veitf. de Contrib. p. 460, in fin. XIII. What Santerna lays down, part. 4, de Assecur. no. 19 et seq., namely, that damage caused by the fault of a third party, namely the pilot, does not release the insurer from the obligation to pay the loss: because the act of a third party does not prevent the obligation from arising; it is certainly true that this is so by law, if he has generally bound himself for all cases, even those arising from the fault of the seaman. Otherwise he is liable only for fortuitous events, not for the fault of the pilot; but the shipmaster himself, if, as in the present case, he entrusted the ship to an unsuitable pilot, l. 16. D: de rei vindic. conf. art. 27. Assec. Amst. XIV. If, in one and the same voyage, goods are transferred from one ship to another, and the last ship is lost together with the goods, whether the promiser or insurer is liable for such an event of peril. Here the form of the insurance must be examined, whether mention was made in it of the last ship or not. If mention was made, then by the terms of the contract he is certainly bound, provided this event occurred without fraud or fault on the part of another. If no mention was made, he is not liable. If, however, the goods were transferred into a boat for the purpose of lightening the loaded ship, because it could not enter the river or the harbor, as large ships gravely to harbors...
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164 Ioh. Loccenii tim insinuant, uti Petronius in Satyr. loquitur; eaque scapha submersa sit, iste casus perinde æstimabitur, atque si in ipsa navi accidisset. 1. navis ad leg. Rhod. de jact. (præsertim si promissor caverit de damno, usque dum navis appulerit ad portum) secus, si hocalia de caussa contigerit. Santerna p.3. n.36.37.38.39. XV. Si damnum non excedat unum pro centum, assecurator non tenebitur ad præstationem damni, ut est in Statuto Amster. de Assecur. art.26. XVI. Si quis curavit sibi assecurari vel caveri de bonis, quæ postea ipsi missa non sunt, aut minus mercium navi impositum quam cautum est, aut exercitores ob certam causam mutent consilium expediundæ navis ac itineris; atque hoc significetur intra quatuor menses à data Assecuratione; repetere licet ab Assecuratore pretium aversi periculi; dato ipsi pro molestia dimidio de centum. ut est in art.16. Statuti Antverp. et art.22. Stat. Amsterod. de Assecur. XVII. Si naves cum pretiosis mercibus in exteris locis arresto detineantur, sex mensium spatium vel ex remotis ac longe dissitis locis annum (ex remotioribus biennium) præstolabitur dominus navis aut mercium, donec ista navis pro deperdita aut
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164 John Loccenius likewise intimates, as Petronius says in the Satyr.; and if that boat has been sunk, this accident shall be estimated in the same way as if it had happened in the ship itself. 1. navis ad leg. Rhod. de jact. (especially if the promisor has provided against the loss, until the ship has come into port) otherwise, if it happened for some other cause. Santerna p. 3. n. 36. 37. 38. 39. XV. If the loss does not exceed one per cent, the insurer shall not be bound to pay the loss, as is stated in the Amster. Statute de Assecur. art. 26. XVI. If anyone has taken care to have insurance or security made for himself against goods which were afterwards not sent to him, or less merchandise was loaded on the ship than had been agreed, or the shipowners for a certain cause change their plan concerning the dispatching of the ship and the voyage; and this is made known within four months from the date of the insurance; it is permitted to recover from the insurer the price of the risk averted; with half a per cent given to him for his trouble. as is stated in art. 16 of the Statute of Antwerp and art. 22 of the Statute of Amsterdam, de Assecur. XVII. If ships with precious merchandise are detained under arrest in foreign places, the owner of the ship or the goods shall wait six months, or in the case of places far away and very distant a year (from more remote places two years), until that ship is deemed lost or
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 165 aut publicata habeatur. salvæ autem merces interim alii navi imponentur ad continuandum iter. Si verò sint res fungibiles, aut quæ utendo consumuntur, eæque arresto detentæ cum navi, non exspectabitur dictum tempus, sed postquam assecurator de eo certior factus est, & hoc legitimè indicavit, actionem suam persequetur. art. 8. 9. Ordinar. vel Statuti Amster. de Assecur. XVIII. Assecurator satisfaciet assecurato post tres menses, aut ob moram interesse præstabit, ex quo intra dictum tempus nihil fando audivit de navi & mercibus, quæ jam pro deperditis habentur. art. 5. & 25. Stat. Amst. de Assec. Grot. Introd. Iur. Holl. part. 24. Plura apud Santernam, & in Statutis Amsterod. & Antverp. Belgica lingua scriptis pag. 191. & seqq. & pag. 444. & seqq. edit. de anno 1639. de hoc argumento legi possunt. Potiora hîc excerpta sic admitti volo, quatenus foro mercatorum, moribus atque æquitati sunt conformia. CAP. VI. De Foenore nautico. I. De appellationibus Foenoris nautici. II. Quid proprie sit & quotuplex. III. An
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 165 or be deemed published. But the goods shall in the meantime be placed on another ship to continue the voyage. But if they are fungible things, or things consumed in the using, and they are held under arrest together with the ship, the said time shall not be awaited, but after the insurer has been informed thereof, and has lawfully been notified of this, he shall pursue his action. art. 8. 9. Ordinar. vel Statuti Amster. de Assecur. XVIII. The insurer shall satisfy the insured after three months, or, in case of delay, pay compensation, from the time that within the said period he has heard nothing whatsoever about the ship and the goods, which are now considered lost. art. 5. & 25. Stat. Amst. de Assec. Grot. Introd. Iur. Holl. part. 24. More may be read in Santerna, and in the Statutes of Amsterdam and Antwerp, written in the Belgian language, page 191 and following, and page 444 and following, edition of the year 1639, on this subject. The more important excerpts here I wish to be admitted thus, insofar as they are in conformity with mercantile custom, practice, and equity. CAP. VI. On nautical interest. I. On the names of nautical interest. II. What it properly is and how many kinds it has. III. Whether
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166 Ioh. Loccenii III An sit licitum. IV. In qua re consistat. V. VI. De quantitate ejus. VII. Modus cautionis de foenore nautico. IX. An navarchus pro lubitu possit obligare carinam foenore nautico. IX. Quando navis sit periculo creditoris, quando non. X. Pæna pecuniæ trajectitiæ ex mora. XI. Quando usura solum ordinaria et communes non foenus nauticum hîc peti possit. XII. Exemplum rei judicatæ de Nautico foenore. I. QVm Foenus nauticum mixtum quid sit ex contractu mutui, & periculi aversi ut notat Grotius de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 5. de eo quædam hic scorsim observabimus statim post caput antecedens de aversione periculi. Quod attinet notionem vocis Foenoris, non semper usuram pecuniæ creditæ, & quidem illicitæ, sed etiam aliquando rem ipsam, quæ mutuo data est, & æs alienum sub usura contractum signat. Ita hîc foenus nauticum non usuram nauticam, sed pecuniam foeneratam sub usuris nauticis esse, utrumque cum redierit navis, solvendum, ex authoribus & jure probat Salmasius cap. 2. de Vsur. pag.
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166 Ioh. Loccenii III. Whether it is lawful. IV. In what this consists. V. VI. Of its amount. VII. The manner of security for maritime interest. IX. Whether the shipmaster may at will encumber the keel with maritime interest. IX. When the ship is at the creditor’s risk, when not. X. The penalty of the money sent oversea for delay. XI. When only ordinary and common interest, and not maritime interest, may here be claimed. XII. An example of a decided case concerning maritime interest. I. Since maritime interest is a mixed thing, partly from a contract of loan and partly from aversion of risk, as Grotius notes, de jur. bell. e. p. 2, 12, 5, concerning it we shall here separately observe certain things immediately after the preceding chapter on the removal of risk. As for the meaning of the word Foenus, it does not always signify the interest on money lent, and indeed unlawful interest, but also sometimes the thing itself that has been given by loan, and debt contracted under interest. Thus here maritime interest is not to be understood as maritime interest on the loan, but rather as money lent under maritime interest, both to be repaid when the ship has returned, as Salmasius proves from the authorities and from law, cap. 2. de Vsur. pag.
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Delire Maritimo Lib. II. 167 pag 23.24. Appellatur alias maritimum sænus, usura maritima, periculi pretium, quod pro periculo, quod in se recipit creditor, detur. item trajectitia pecunia, vel nautica pecunia, quod navi trans mare vehatur Si domi vel in eo loco, ubi traditur, consumatur, non erit trajectitia pecunia. l. 1. h. t. Nostratibus dicitur Semerie/ Sedmerie/ Sedemerie/ Sedemeret (tam variè enim pronunciatur) â carina vel fundo navis ita primum appellata, (cum etiam lingua Gallorum antiqua & Britannica Bodo vel Bodun fundum aut profundum signet, teste camdeno in Britannia p. m. 149.) in quem navis fundum magister navis mutuo accepit pecuniam. Sed possea pro quavis nautica pecunia aut nautico foenore per synecdochon accepta est. II. Nauticum foenus nihil aliud est, quam talis pecunia, quam creditor, recepto in se dubii eventus periculo, alicuisub certis usuris, tanquam periculi compensatione tradit. Foenus illud est duplex, terrestre & nauticum. Terrestre, quod debetur pro pecunia terrestre iter facientibus credita. Nauticum quod navigantibus, ut patet, datur; & est periculo creditoris l. 3. D. de naut. foen. lib. 1. cap. cod. lib. 62. D. de rei vindic. De quo hîc præcipuè tractatio instituitur. Alii nauticum proprium, terrestre minus
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Delire Maritimo Lib. II. 167 pages 23, 24. It is also called maritime usury, maritime interest, the price of risk, because it is given for the risk which the creditor takes upon himself. Likewise, money for carriage by sea, or nautical money, because it is transported by ship across the sea. If it is consumed at home or in the place where it is delivered, it will not be money for carriage by sea. l. 1. h. t. Among our people it is called Semerie/ Sedmerie/ Sedemerie/ Sedemeret (for it is pronounced in many different ways), so first named from the keel or bottom of a ship; (since even in the old French and British language Bodo or Bodun signifies the bottom or depth, as Camden testifies in Britannia p. m. 149,) in which the ship’s bottom the master of the ship borrowed money. But afterwards it was accepted, by synecdoche, for any nautical money or nautical loan. II. Nautical interest is nothing other than such money as a creditor, having taken upon himself the risk of an uncertain event, delivers to someone at fixed interest, as compensation for the risk. That interest is twofold: terrestrial and nautical. Terrestrial, which is owed for money lent to those making a land journey. Nautical, which is given, as is evident, to those sailing; and it is at the creditor’s risk, l. 3. D. de naut. foen. lib. 1. cap. cod. lib. 62. D. de rei vindic. The present discussion is chiefly concerned with this. Others understand nautical in the proper sense, and terrestrial
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Ioh. Loccenii 168 minus proprium vel quasi nauticum vocant. De quo in l.5. D. de naut. foen. Sichard. in tit. Cod. eod. n.2. Borcholt in Tractatu de Naut. foen. c. 2. 3. Rittershus p.3. Exp. Nov. cap. I I. n.3. III. Sed in disceptationem venire potest, num hujusmodi foenus sit licitum. Illicitum videri nonnullis possit, quod foenus, ut mordax & homines exsugens, jure divino & humano prohibeatur. Quo referri quoque canon lib. v. Decret. tit. 18. De Vsuris cap. 19. queat, qui sic habet: Naviganti vel eundi (sic enim emendandum pro navigandi, eundi) ad nundinas certam mutuanspecuniæ quantitatem, eò quod suscept in se periculum recepturus aliquid ultra sortem, usurarius est censendus. Verum enim verò hîc proptiè non versari damnatum foenus, sed compensationem aliquam periculi, quod creditor contra naturam mutui in se recipit, partim ex S. 1. & 2. h. cap. patet, partim inde liquet: quod naturali rationi est conveniens, ut incommoda & pericula lucrum aliquod comitetur lib. 10. ff. de reg. jur. præsertim ubi ipsa sors ob anceps maris discrimen periclitari aut intercidere potest. Gregorius lib. v. Epist. c. 136. Valde durum est, ut quis, unde nullum sensit commodum, sustineat injuste dispendium. Ipse Paulus ita vult uni esse relaxa-
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Ioh. Loccenii 168 less proper, or as it were nautical, they call it. On this see l. 5. D. de naut. foen. Sichard. in tit. Cod. eod. n. 2. Borcholt in Tractatu de Naut. foen. c. 2. 3. Rittershus p. 3. Exp. Nov. cap. II. n. 3. III. But it may come into dispute whether such interest is lawful. It may seem unlawful to some, because interest, as biting and sucking out men, is forbidden by divine and human law. To this too the canon may be referred, lib. v. Decret. tit. 18. De Vsuris cap. 19, which runs thus: He who lends a fixed sum of money to one traveling by ship or going (for so it should be corrected from navigandi to eundi), to the fair, because he has taken on himself the risk, is to be counted as receiving something beyond the principal, and is to be deemed usurious. But in truth here it is not properly damned interest that is involved, but rather some compensation for the risk which the creditor, against the nature of a loan, takes upon himself; partly from S. 1. and 2. of this chapter it is clear, partly also from this: that it is in accord with natural reason that some gain should accompany inconveniences and dangers, lib. 10. ff. de reg. jur. especially where the principal itself can be endangered or lost on account of the uncertain peril of the sea. Gregory lib. v. Epist. c. 136. It is very harsh that someone, from whom he has experienced no benefit, should unjustly bear a loss. Paul himself thus wishes that one be released-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 169 relaxationem, ne alii afflictio sit. 2. Cor. 8. 13. Vid. quoque Chemnit. part. 2. Loc. Theo- log. cap. 6. de Vsur. p. m. 432. & 458. 459. Et Molinæus de Vsur. q. 3. n. 92. ait: Hoc approbant omnes Theologi, ut creditor possit aliquid accipere ultra sortem pro susceptione periculi. Ibid. hoc plurium Theologorum testimoniis firmat. Quod verò attinet Canonem Naviganti ult. de Vsur. si rectè emendetur, salva res erit. Hoc autem modo emendandum vi- derunt Fachinæus lib. 2. Contro. jur. cap 48. Hordlederus & Zinzerlingus ad 1. Pe- riculi pretium 5. de naut. foen. Naviganti vel eunti ad nundinas certam mutuans pecu- nia quantitatem, e. q. 1. s. s. p. r. a. ultra sor- tem, usurarius NON est censendus. Sic negativè concipiendum esse, & sensus ver- borum jubet, & confirmat illud, quod ubi dubium est, an is qui mutuò dat, ul- tra sortem tempore solutionis aliquid re- cepturus sit, ibi justam & licitam esse usu- ram idem Pontifex in sequentibus ejusdem capitis tmematibus disertè adfirmat, ut &c Alexander 3. c. 6. eod. Inde Heigius part. 2. qu. 1. n. 137. ait: Etiam de nauico fæ- nore pacisci jure (Canonico) licet. quamvis autem hæc conciliatio subtilis sit, & pos- sit videri vero propior, tamen cum sit divinatoria, Iurisconsulto non digna, & H omnes
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 169 relaxation, lest there be affliction to others. 2 Cor. 8. 13. See also Chemnit. part 2. Loc. Theolog. cap. 6. de Vsur. p. m. 432. & 458. 459. And Molinæus de Vsur. q. 3. n. 92. says: This all theologians approve, that a creditor may take something beyond the principal for bearing the risk. In the same place he confirms this by the testimony of several theologians. As for the Canon Naviganti ult. de Vsur., if it is correctly emended, the matter will be safe. Now this is to be amended in this way, as Fachinæus lib. 2. Contro. jur. cap. 48. Hordlederus & Zinzerlingus ad 1. Peri- culi pretium 5. de naut. foen. saw. One who lends a certain sum of money to a traveler or to one going to a fair, etc., and. q. 1. s. s. p. r. a. beyond the principal, is NOT to be considered a usurer. Thus it must be understood negatively, and the sense of the words requires it, and that is confirmed by the fact that where there is doubt whether the one who lends will receive something beyond the principal at the time of repayment, there the same Pontiff in the following fragments of that same chapter plainly affirms that usury is just and lawful, as &c Alexander 3. c. 6. eod. Hence Heigius part. 2. qu. 1. n. 137. says: It is also lawful in (Canon) law to make an agreement about maritime interest. Although however this reconciliation is subtle, and may seem closer to the truth, nevertheless, since it is divinatory, it is not worthy of a jurist, & all the rest
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170 Ioh. Loccenii omnes textus affirmativè legant, ut testatur Zoësius in tit. de nautic. fæn. n. 4. eam non admittendam censet. Nihilominus in ea est sententia, quod non obstante dicto canone, foenus nauticum etiam jure canonicò sit licitum, non tam ratione mutui, quod capitur ultra sortem, quam nomine justi periculi. d. loc. n. 3. & 4. Accedit authoritas juris civilis, toto tit. Dig. & Cod. de Naut. fæn. & Doctorum. Sichardus in tit. Cod. de naut. fæn. n. 4. Vsuram nauticam propter periculum quod quis in se suscipit esse permissam. Et ita Guido Papæ in decis. 572. in fin. dicit sua ætate esse decisum. Et mox: quod sint permissæ nsuræ nauticæ, facit incertitudo & periculum. nam plerumque propter incertitudinem quædam permittuntur: quæ si certa essent, non permitterentur. Et Molinæus comment. de usur. q.3. n. 91. Quod justissimum sit foenus nauticum, liquet propter multitudinem & magnitudinem periculorum quæ versantur in mari: & propter exiguitatem & vilitatem pretii videlicet centesima respectu tantorum & continuorum periculorum totius sortis. His addas exempla sapientum, Zenonis, Menippi, Catonis, qui foenus nauticum exercere, â secta sua & supercilio Stoico non alienum duxerunt; uti testantur Diogenes Laertius in vita Zenonis & Menippi
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170 Ioh. Loccenii all the texts read it affirmatively, as Zoësius testifies in tit. de nautic. fæn. n. 4, he thinks it ought not to be admitted. Nevertheless he is of the opinion that, notwithstanding the said canon, nautical interest is also lawful by canon law, not so much on account of a loan, which is taken above the principal, as by the name of just risk. d. loc. n. 3. & 4. Added to this is the authority of civil law, throughout the title in the Dig. & Cod. de Naut. fæn. and of the Doctors. Sichardus in tit. Cod. de naut. fæn. n. 4 says that nautical interest is permitted because of the danger which one undertakes for oneself. And thus Guido Papa in decis. 572. in fin. says that in his age it was decided so. And shortly after: that nautical interest is permitted, is due to uncertainty & danger. for usually certain things are permitted on account of uncertainty: which, if they were certain, would not be permitted. And Molinæus, comment. de usur. q. 3. n. 91: That nautical interest is most just, is clear because of the multitude & magnitude of the dangers which are encountered at sea: & because of the smallness & cheapness of the price, namely one hundredth part, in relation to so many & continual dangers of the whole principal. To these add the examples of the wise men, Zeno, Menippus, Cato, who did not consider the practice of nautical interest to be alien to their sect & Stoic pride; as Diogenes Laertius testifies in the lives of Zeno & Menippus
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 171 pi, & Plutarchus in vita Catonis. IV. Solet pretium hujus periculi ut plu- rimum in numerata pecunia consistere. quamvis etiam in mercibus ex ea compa- ratis, si periculo creditoris navigent, ex convento consistere queat l. 1. D. de naut. san. Et si merces ipse solebat comparare, in illis non solum damni, sed & lucri ra- tio habebitur l.2. ß. 8. in fin. D. de eo quod certo loc. d. O. V. Veteribus legibus non fuit definita quantitas usurarum maritimarum: unde factum est, ut sæpe modus excederetur. quod non obscurè indicat Lex.26. Cod. de Vsur. his verbis: Nec eam excedere, licet veteribus legibus hoc erat concessum. Nimi- rum indefinitum periculi pretium leges veteres ea de causa reliquerunt, ut liceret contrahentibus, prout majus aut minus appareret maris periculum, ita Majores aut minores usuras stipulari ac promitteres ut notat Cl. Salmasius cap. 9. de modo usur. p. 380. Ea mente dixit Paulus IC. lib. 2. Sentent. tit. 14. ß. 3. Trajectitia pe- cunia propter periculum creditoris, quamdiu navigat navis, infinitas usuras capere potest. ad quem locum ita notat interpres Ania- nus: Quia maris periculo committitur, in quantas convenerit usuras, hanc pecuniam hanc creditor potest. Aliquando ergo majo- H 2 ICS
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. II. 171 pi, & Plutarch in the life of Cato. IV. The price of this peril is usually for the most part to consist in ready money; though it can also, by agreement, consist in goods purchased therewith, if they sail at the creditor’s risk, l. 1. D. de naut. san. And if he was accustomed to purchase the goods himself, in them account will be taken not only of loss, but also of gain, l. 2. § 8. in fin. D. de eo quod certo loc. d. O. V. By the ancient laws the amount of maritime interest was not defined; whence it came about that the limit was often exceeded. This is plainly indicated by Law 26, Cod. de Usur., in these words: “Nor may it exceed this, although this had been allowed by the older laws.” Indeed, the ancient laws left the price of the peril undefined for this reason, that it might be lawful for the contracting parties, as the danger of the sea appeared greater or less, so to stipulate and promise greater or smaller interest, as Cl. Salmasius notes, cap. 9, de modo usur. p. 380. With this intent the jurist Paulus said, lib. 2. Sentent. tit. 14. § 3: Trajectitia pecunia, on account of the creditor’s risk, so long as the ship is at sea, may bear unlimited interest. On which passage the interpreter Anianus thus notes: Because it is committed to the danger of the sea, this money may bear whatever interest has been agreed upon. Therefore sometimes greater ... H 2 ICS
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170 Ioh. Loccenii omnes textus affirmativè legant, ut testatur Zoesius in tit. de nautic. fæn. n. 4. eam non admittendam censet. Nihilominus in ea est sententia, quod non obstante dicto canone, foenus nauticum etiam jure canonico sit licitum, non tam ratione mutui, quod capitur ultra sortem, quam nomine justi periculi. d. loc. n. 3. & 4. Accedit authoritas juris civilis, toto tit. Dig. & Cod. de Naut. fæn. & Doctorum. Sichardus in tit. Cod. de naut. fæn. n. 4. Vsuram nauticam propter periculum quod quis in se suscipit esse permissam. Et ita Guido Papæ in decis. 572. in fin. dicit sua ætate esse decisum. Et mox: quod sint permissæ usura nauticæ, facit incertitudo & periculum. nam plerumque propter incertitudinem quædam permittuntur: quæ si certa essent, non permitterentur. Et Molinæus comment. de usur. q.3. n. 91. Quod justissimum sit foenus nauticum, liquet propter multitudinem & magnitudinem periculorum quæ versantur in mari: & propter exiguitatem & vilitatem pretii videlicet centesima respectu tantorum & continuorum periculorum totius sortis. His addas exempla sapientum, Zenonis, Menippi, Catonis, qui foenus nauticum exercere, â secta sua & supercilio Stoico non alienum duxerunt; uti testantur Diogenes Laertius in vita Zenonis & Menippi,
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170 Ioh. Loccenii all the texts read affirmatively, as Zoesius testifies in tit. de nautic. fæn. n. 4, he considers it not to be admitted. Nevertheless, he holds the opinion that, notwithstanding the said canon, maritime interest is also permitted by canon law, not so much by reason of a loan, since something is taken beyond the principal, as under the name of just risk. d. loc. n. 3. & 4. There is added the authority of civil law, throughout the title Dig. & Cod. de Naut. fæn. & of the Doctors. Sichardus in tit. Cod. de naut. fæn. n. 4 says that maritime usury is permitted because of the danger which one undertakes for oneself. And thus Guido Papa in decis. 572, at the end, says that in his time it had been decided so. And shortly after: that maritime usuries are permitted is shown by uncertainty and danger. For usually, because of uncertainty, certain things are permitted, which, if they were certain, would not be permitted. And Molinæus, comment. de usur. q. 3. n. 91, says that maritime interest is most just, because of the multitude and magnitude of the dangers which are encountered at sea, and because of the smallness and cheapness of the price, namely the hundredth part in comparison with so many and continual dangers to the whole principal. To these you may add the examples of the wise men, Zeno, Menippus, Cato, who did not think it alien to their school and Stoic reserve to engage in maritime interest; as is testified by Diogenes Laertius in the life of Zeno and Menippus,
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 171 pi, & Plutarchus in vita Catonis. IV. Solet pretium hujus periculi ut plu- rimum in numerata pecunia consistere. quamvis etiam in mercibus ex ea compa- ratis, si periculo creditoris navigent, ex convento consistere queat l.1. D. de naut. san. Et si merces ipse solebat comparare, in illis non solum damni, sed & lucri ra- tio habebitur l.2. ß.8. in fin. D. de eo quod certo loc. d.O. V. Veteribus legibus non fuit definita quantitas usurarum maritimarum: unde factum est, ut sæpe modus excederetur. quod non obscurè indicat Lex.26. Cod. de Vsur. his verbis: Nec eam excedere, licet veteribus legibus hoc erat concessum. Nimi- rum indefinitum periculi pretium leges veteres ea de causa reliquerunt, ut liceret contrahentibus, prout majus aut minus appareret maris periculum, ita Majores aut minores usuras stipulari ac promittere; ut notat Cl. Salmasius cap. 9. de modo usur. p. 380. Ea mente dixit Paulus IC. lib. 2. Sentent. tit. 14. ß.3. Trajectitia pe- cunia propter periculum creditoris, quamdiu navigat navis, infinitas usuras capere potest. ad quem locum ita notat interpres Ania- nus: Quia maris periculo committitur, in quantas convenerit usuras, hanc pecuniam dare creditor potest. Aliquando ergo majo- H 2
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. II. 171 pi, and Plutarch in the Life of Cato. IV. The price of this risk is usually found for the most part in counted money; although it may also consist in goods purchased with it, if they sail at the creditor’s risk, as can be agreed upon, l.1. D. de naut. san. And if he was accustomed to purchase goods himself, in those not only loss, but also gain, will be taken into account, l.2. ß.8. in fin. D. de eo quod certo loc. d.O. V. By the ancient laws the amount of maritime interest was not defined: whence it happened that the limit was often exceeded, which the Law 26. Cod. de Usur. clearly indicates in these words: Nor is it allowed to exceed it, although this was granted by the older laws. Namely, the ancient laws left the price of the risk undefined for this reason, so that the contracting parties might, according as the danger of the sea appeared greater or less, stipulate and promise greater or lesser interest; as the illustrious Salmasius notes, chap. 9. de modo usur. p. 380. With this in mind, Paul the jurist said in lib. 2. Sentent. tit. 14. ß.3. Trajectitia money, because of the creditor’s risk, so long as the ship is sailing, can bear unlimited interest. To this passage Anianus the interpreter notes thus: Because it is committed to the danger of the sea, the creditor may give this money on whatever interest has been agreed upon. Sometimes therefore greater H 2
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172 Ioh. Loccenii es fuerunt usuræ pro magnitudine periculi; quo sensu accipiendus Petronii versus: Qui pelago credit, magno se fænore tollit. aliquando minores, si exile esset periculum. Eodem modo apud Græcos fænus nauticum pro ratione periculi propioris aut remotioris incrementum accepit majus aut minus, ut fuse observavit Salmasius cap. 5. de modo usur. p. 188. 218. & alibi. Sed Iustinianus in imperio Rom. ad centesimam reduxit in l. ult. Cod. de Vsur. i.e. ut una uncia singulis mensibus, atque ita duodecim pro centum toto anno præstarentur. Et hæc legitima usura dicta est, ut est in Scholio veteri lib. 23. Basilic. tit. de Vsuris: Nóμορος πίκος ἰδιὰ πειντίως προς δυειζοντος ἐπιπιπιδυνα, ἰκατοσπιαῖος. Vsura legitima ejus qui trajectitiam pecuniam trans mare vehendam foeneratur, id est cum periculo suo, centesima est. Legitima nuncupatur usura, quod lege vel constituzione Imp. introducta, vita est sufficere ad pensandum creditoris periculum. Sed postea Iustinianus Nov. 106. approbavit quasdam pactiones in foenore nautico usu receptas, quibus contrahentes excedebant usuram centesimam: quam Novella 110. iterum abrogasse, & ad centesimam secundum l. 26. Cod. de usur. redu-
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172 It was because of the magnitude of the risk that those interest rates were charged; in this sense the verse of Petronius is to be understood: He who trusts the sea raises himself at great interest. Sometimes they were lower, if the danger was slight. In the same way among the Greeks maritime interest received a greater or lesser increase, according as the risk was nearer or more remote, as Salmasius observed at length chap. 5, de modo usur. p. 188, 218, and elsewhere. But Justinian, in the Roman Empire, reduced it to the hundredth in the last law, Cod. de Vsur. , that is, so that one ounce should be paid each month, and thus twelve per hundred throughout the whole year. And this was called the lawful interest, as is found in the ancient Scholia to book 23 of the Basilics, title De Vsuris : Nóμορος πίκος ἰδιὰ πειντίως προς δυειζοντος ἐπιπιπιδυνα, ἰκατοσπιαῖος. The lawful interest of one who lends money to be carried across the sea, that is, at his own risk, is the hundredth. It is called lawful interest because, introduced by law or imperial constitution, it is considered sufficient to compensate for the creditor’s risk. But afterward Justinian, in Novel 106, approved certain agreements in maritime lending that were in common use, by which the contracting parties exceeded the hundredth interest; which Novel 110 seems again to have abrogated, and reduced to the hundredth according to l. 26, Cod. de usur.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 173 reduxisse, volunt interpretes Novellarum, Cujacius addictas Novell. 106. et 110. et lib. 27. Obs. c. 37. Rittershusius Expos. me- thod. Novell. part. 3 cap. I 1. n. 7. Gudelinus lib. 3. de jure noviss. cap. 3. Salmalius autem Novella 110. centesimam abrogatam, & antiquam licentiam, in quantas quis vellet usuras trajectitiam pecuniam paciscendi ac mutuò dandi, restitutam statuit c. 9. de modo usur. pag. 377. Quid- quid sit, cum Imperator in Nov. 106. ad- ferat, dubitatione hujus rei ortâ, se con- vocasse naucleros, eosque interrogasse quæ antiqua hujus rei consuetudo fuerit, illos verò sanctè testatos esse, modos esse varios talium mutuorum; utique in liberis Rebus spub. & ex conventione paciscentium ad- huc variare possunt: ut habita ratione temporis navigandi, locorum ad quæ navigatio dirigitur, & periculi quod suscipitur, majores aut minores usuræ præstentur: ita tamen ut extensio non admittatur, nisi expresse constet de veritate & paritate periculi, ne sit prætextus fraudi usurariæ. Molin. de Vsur. q. 3. n. 94. neve fiat, quod Manilius lib. 4. Astronom. in admodum avarum danistam jacit: Navigat et celeres optando sortibus annos, Dulcibus usuris, æquo quoque, tempora vendis. H 3 Hos
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 173 the interpreters of the Novels wish it to have been restored, Cujacius, in the notes to Novels 106 and 110, and lib. 27. Obs. c. 37. Rittershusius, Expos. method. Novell. part. 3 cap. 11. n. 7. Gudelinus lib. 3. de jure noviss. cap. 3. Salmalius however, on Novel 110, states that the centesima had been abolished, and that the ancient license, of agreeing for whatever interest one pleased on ship-money and of lending it by mutual contract, had been restored, c. 9. de modo usur. pag. 377. Be that as it may, since the Emperor, in Nov. 106, states that, when doubt arose about this matter, he had summoned the shipowners, and asked them what the ancient custom of this matter had been, and that they had solemnly testified that the forms of such loans were various; certainly in free commonwealths and by agreement of the contracting parties they may still vary: so that, regard being had to the time of sailing, the places to which the voyage is directed, and the danger undertaken, greater or lesser interest may be exacted: yet so that no excessive increase be allowed, unless it clearly appears that the risk is real and equal, lest there be a pretext for usurious fraud. Molin. de Vsur. q. 3. n. 94. lest what Manilius, lib. 4. Astronom., throws in the teeth of a very greedy money-lender: He sails on, and by wishing for speedy years of profit, you sell the time too for sweet usury, on equal terms. H 3 Hos
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Ioh. Loccenii 174 Hos versus de anatocismo accipiendos putat Scaliger in Notis ad Manilium p. m. 315. quamvis etiam hic sermonem de trajectitia pecunia esse adfirmet. Sed Salmasius in cap. 3. de modo usur. to æquum hic vult idem esse, quod sortem to πεφιλων, to ἰσον. Nam in mutuo to ἰσον redditur, & præterea pro auctario usura de qua convenit. quo sensu πα ἰσα Lucæ c. 6. v. 34. accipi videntur. Possumus tamen alium sensum dare verbis illis poëtæ, inquit Salmasius ib. pag. 93. & forsan veriorem. Non solum inquit optando celeres annos sortibus, hoc est celerem sortis exæquationem, dulcibus usuris vendit tempora, sed etiam æquo illa vendit, id est, æqualem summam exigit ei quam mutuo dedit. quod fænus horrendum est, sed olim in trajectitia pecunia usitatum, quo centum pro centum aliquis accipere dicitur. Sint ergo tales usuræ, quæ legem non offendant, aut, deficiente lege, æquitatem. quò etiam Ius canonicum, de quo sup. in c. Naviganti spectasse videtur, quod non vult qualibet periculi susceptione licitum fieri receptum ultra sortem, sed ea tantum, quæ verè talis est, ut nimirum pecunia conventa respondeat periculo. Zæs. . d. loc. n 4. infin. VI. Quando trajectitia pecunia ea conditione mutuò data est, ut sit extra periculum
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Ioh. Loccenii 174 Scaliger in the Notes on Manilius, p. m. 315, thinks that these verses are to be understood of anatocism, although here also he affirms that the subject is trajectitia pecunia. But Salmasius in cap. 3, de modo usur., wants to make the word ᾄ equum here mean the same as the principal, τὸ πεφιλων, τὸ ἴσον. For in a loan, τὸ ἴσον is repaid, and besides that, as an increment, the interest agreed upon. In this sense, πὰ ἴσα in Luke c. 6, v. 34, seems to be taken. Yet we may give the poet’s words another meaning, says Salmasius, ib. p. 93, and perhaps a truer one. He says: not only does he, by wishing, sell swift years for the principal sums, that is, a speedy equalization of the principal, with sweet interest, he sells time, but he also sells it at an equal rate, that is, he exacts an equal sum from the one to whom he lent it. That is a horrible kind of usury, but formerly it was common in trajectitia pecunia, by which someone is said to receive one hundred for one hundred. Therefore let there be such interest as shall not offend the law, or, where the law is lacking, equity. To this, too, the canon law, of which mention was made above in c. Naviganti, seems to have regard; for it does not wish that any assumption of risk should make it lawful to receive more than the principal, but only that kind which is truly such, namely, that the money stipulated for corresponds to the risk. Zæs. . d. loc. n. 4. infin. VI. When trajectitia pecunia has been lent on the condition that it be outside the risk
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 175 culum creditoris, vel quando post præstitutum diem & impletam conditionem desit esse periculo creditoris, centesima majores usuras non deberi respondit Papinianus. Sed quando nave navigante pecunia trajectitia est periculo creditoris, majoribus, usuris jure R. stipulari licet, quandoque etiam duplo sortis. Nimirum in stipulatione servi, pecuniæ trajectitiæ & aliarum rerum Domini procurandarum caussa cum debitore ad navigationem missi, si ejus operæ in dies singulos, ut solebat, æstimentur, pro iis duplex centesima in stipulationem deduci & in fine navigationis creditori præstari eodem jure potest. duplum tamen excedere non debet. Quod etiam lege AEgyptiorum ita constitutum erat. vide Diodor. Sicut. lib. 2. l. 4. D. de naut. foen. ejusque legis fusorem interpretationem apud Cujacium lib. 5. Obs. c. 38. Salmasium c. 8. & 9. de modo usur. Potest etiam judex in eo quod certo loco dandum aut recipiendum est, ordinarium usurarum modum excedere, & non solum rei, sed etiam actoris utilitatis rationem habere; ut solet in arbitrariis actionibus [ph] 31. 33. Inst. de Actionib. Ita si trajectitiam pecuniam creditor dederit Ephesi recepturus, ubi sub poena debebat pecuniam vel sub pignoribus; & distracta pigno- H 4
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the creditor’s risk, or when, after the day fixed in advance and the condition fulfilled, it ceases to be at the creditor’s risk, Papinianus replied that interest above the centesima is not due. But when, while the ship is sailing, the pecunia trajectitia is at the creditor’s risk, it is lawful by Roman law to stipulate for higher interest, and sometimes even double the principal. Indeed, in the stipulation of a servant, of pecunia trajectitia , and of other things sent with the debtor on a voyage to procure for the owner, if his services are valued day by day, as was customary, double the centesima may be included in the stipulation for them and at the end of the voyage may be paid to the creditor under the same law. However, the double must not be exceeded. This too was established by the law of the Egyptians; see Diodorus Siculus, book 2, law 4, D. de naut. foen. , and its learned interpretation by Cujacius, book 5, Obs. c. 38, and Salmasius, c. 8 and 9, de modo usur. A judge may also, in matters that are to be given or received at a certain place, exceed the ordinary rate of interest, and consider not only the advantage of the thing itself, but also that of the plaintiff; as is customary in actions at discretion [ph] 31, 33, Inst. de Actionibus . Thus, if a creditor has given pecunia trajectitia to be received at Ephesus, where the money was to be paid either under penalty or under pledges; and the pledged goods having been sold— H 4
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176 Ioh. Loccenii pignora sunt vel poena commissa morâ: vel hisco aliquid debebatur, & res stipulatoris vilissimo distracta est; in hanc arbitrariam, quod interfuit creditoris, veniet actionem, & quidem ultra legitimum modum usurarum. sed & in mercibus ex more comparandis, lucri, non solius damni habebitur ratio; ut est in l. arbitraria 5. nunc de officio D. de eo quod certo l. d. o. In alia quoque quam de pecuniæ trajectitia pactione, potest plus pecunia data postulari, si aleam amittendæ sortis sub- jert creditor, l. periculi pretium S. D. de naut. fæn. cujus legis prolixam & eruditissimam explicationem habes apud Salmasium dicto cap. 9. de modo usur. pag. 394. & seqq. & Zinzerlingum in peculiari ad istam legem commentario. quæ hic longius persequi, nostri non est instituti: cum de pecunia trajectitia hic tantum agatur. VII. Caveri moris est creditori de trajectitia pecuniâ sub conditione, vel nudo pacto vel per stipulationem, aut syngrapham, aut pignoribus & hypothecis, vel mercibus in navi pignori acceptis, in fidem sortis creditæ & usurarum debitarum l.4.6.7. D. de naut. fæn. Pignorum verò persecutio peremta est, si navis ante conditionis eventum perierit aut non salva in portum venerit l.6. h.1. Deficiente enim prin-
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176 Ioh. Loccenii The pledges are either a penalty incurred by delay; or something was owed to him, and the stipulator’s property was sold off at a very low price; into this arbitrary action, so far as the creditor’s interest was concerned, he will come, and indeed beyond the lawful measure of interest. But also in goods customarily bought, regard will be had not to loss alone, but to gain as well; as in l. arbitraria 5. now de officio D. de eo quod certo l. d. o. Likewise, in a transaction other than that concerning money sent abroad, a larger sum may be claimed than was given, if the creditor has subjected himself to the risk of losing the principal; l. periculi pretium S. D. de naut. fæn. For a lengthy and most learned explanation of that law, see Salmasius, in the said chapter 9, de modo usur., page 394 and following, and Zinzerling in a special commentary on that law. To pursue these matters further here is not our purpose, since the discussion here concerns only money sent abroad. VII. It is customary for the creditor to be secured in respect of money sent abroad under a condition, either by a bare agreement or by stipulation, or by syngrapha, or by pledges and hypothecs, or by goods taken on board ship as security, in assurance of the principal lent and the interest due, l. 4. 6. 7. D. de naut. fæn. But the pursuit of pledges is destroyed, if the ship before the event of the condition has perished or has not safely reached the harbor, l. 6. h. 1. For when the prin-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 177 principali obligatione, deficit etiam accessio ejus, pignus. Navigationis periculum interdum à creditore suscipitur usque ad certum portum, aut præfinitum navigationis tempus l.4. D. de naut. fæn. l.1. C. eod vel usque ad reditum, non abitum, interdum in omne navigationis tempus, tam ad abitum quam reditum. Illud è [mercur]ij , hoc è [mercur]ij , Græci appellabant. conf. l. qui Roma S. Callimachus de verb. obl. & ibi Gothofr. & alios. VIII. Magister navis non potest pro lubitu obligare navem sumto foenore nautico: præsertim hoc non potest, secundum statuta Hanseatica de jure maritim. art. ult. in eo loco ubi degunt exercitores, aut absque eorum consensu vel mandato. Sed in peregrinis locis hoc N. pro rata ejus quod in navi habet, ipsi licet, necessitate & salute navis sic exigente. quo casu novissimum pecuniæ nauticæ instrumentum præsertim aliis similibus instrumentis in concursu plurium diversi temporis creditorum: quia per illam postremam pecuniam factum est, ut navis ex portu abiret. Si verò diversi creditores pecuniam dederint non nautæ, sed mercatori sub obligatione mercium quibus navem oneravit, inter eos jus prælationis ratione temporis locum non habet, sed omnes simul concur- H 5
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 177 the principal obligation being absent, its accessory also fails, namely the pledge. The risk of navigation is sometimes assumed by the creditor up to a certain port, or for a fixed period of the voyage, l. 4. D. de naut. fæn. l. 1. C. eod., or up to the return, not the outward voyage, sometimes for the whole time of the voyage, both for the outward journey and the return. The former the [mercur]ij, the latter the [mercur]ij, the Greeks called it. conf. l. qui Roma S. Callimachus de verb. obl. & there Gothofr. & others. VIII. The master of the ship cannot, at his own pleasure, pledge the ship by taking maritime interest: especially he cannot do this, according to the Hanseatic statutes de jure maritim. art. ult. in that place where the owners reside, or without their consent or mandate. But in foreign places he may do this, pro rata of what he has in the ship, if necessity and the safety of the ship so require. In which case the latest maritime loan instrument, especially in competition with other similar instruments among several creditors of different dates: because through that last money it was made possible for the ship to leave the port. But if different creditors have given money not to the sailor, but to the merchant under an obligation of the goods with which he loaded the ship, among them the right of preference on the basis of time does not apply, but all concur together H 5
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Ioh. Loccenii 178 runt. ita Amstelodami in Camera foenoris nautici servari, testatur Vinnius in Pec- kium ad LL. Nautic. quem vid. pag. 95. Hæc tamen statutis aliorum populorum a- liquantum variant. vid. art. 68. Iur. mar. Dan. statuta Dantisc. p. 3. c. 3. a. 19. Statut. Hamburg. a. 1. 2. 3. 5. 7. p. 2. 4. 18. Si verò magister navis absque necessitate, de- dita opera navem foenore nautico onera- rit, ex damno dato exercitoribus navis te- netur, secundum statuta Hanseat. civit. de jure maritim. art. 55. IX. Si navis foenore nautico obligata, sine culpa debitoris casu fortuito perierit, erit periculo creditoris, ex eo die quo navem ad destinatum locum navigare con- venit. l. 3. D. h. tit. Idem lege Rhodia &c Attica cautum fuisse, notat Salmas. cap. 5. de mod. usur. pag. 199. & 208. Sed abs- que tali conventione infortunium naufra- gii ad debitorem pertinet l. 4. C. h. 1. Sed & qui convento tempore non navigat, vel aliò quam debet, navigat, ad eum tra- jectitiæ pecuniæ periculum spectat. nisi temporis ac navigationis præferendæ po- testatem à domino expresse acceperit. Vi- del. 122. ß. 1. ff. de verb. oblig. & ejus le- gis interpretationem apud Cujacium lib. 2. Ob- serv. c. 11. & Salmasium cap. 9. de modo usu- rar. pag. 359. & seqq. Si verò, creditore navigii
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Ioh. Loccenii 178 they are thus kept at Amsterdam in the Chamber of marine lending, Vinnius testifies in Peckium on the Maritime Laws, which see p. 95. These, however, vary somewhat from the statutes of other peoples. See art. 68 of the Danish Maritime Law, the statutes of Danzig, p. 3, c. 3, a. 19. The Hamburg statutes, a. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, p. 2, 4, 18. But if the master of the ship, without necessity, having done so deliberately, has burdened the ship with a marine loan, he is liable for the damage caused to the shipowners, according to the statutes of the Hanseatic cities, on maritime law, art. 55. IX. If a ship obligated by a marine loan has perished by accident without the debtor’s fault, it shall be at the creditor’s risk, from the day on which it was agreed that the ship should sail to the appointed place. l. 3. D. h. tit. Salmasius notes that the same was provided by the Rhodian law and the Attic law, cap. 5, de mod. usur. p. 199 and 208. But without such an agreement, the mishap of shipwreck belongs to the debtor, l. 4. C. h. 1. And likewise, if one does not sail at the agreed time, or sails to some other place than he ought, the risk of the money advanced to him falls on him, unless he has expressly received from the owner the power to choose the time and route of the voyage. See § 122, 1. ff. de verb. oblig., and the interpretation of that law in Cujacius, lib. 2, Observ. c. 11, and in Salmasius, cap. 9, de modo usurar. p. 359 and following. But if, creditor of the voyage
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Delire Maritimo Lib. II. 179 navigii in certum locum destinati periculum suscipiente, debitor illicitis mercibus navi exceptis majoris lucri causa aliò naviget, & ibi merces aut navim per confiscationem amittat, hoc non erit periculo creditoris, sed debitoris: cum non ex marinæ tempestatis discrimine, sed ex præcipiti audacia, & incivili debitoris avaritia (ita leg. videtur) acciderit l. 3. Cod. de naut. fæn. vid. & Demosth. orat. contra Dionysodor. X. Aliquando poena pecuniæ trajectitiæ promitti solet, quæ ex morâ committitur, etiam mortuo debitore & jacente hæreditare l 9. D. h. tit. Peti tamen non potest poena pecuniæ trajectitiæ, si creditor in mora accipiendi præstituto & expresso die fuerit l. 8. D. eod. Alioqui si interpellare cæpisset, & valetudine impeditus interpellare desisset, poena non committeretur. l. 23. ff. de oblig. & act. Si nemo adsit, qui à parte debitoris interpellari pecuniæ trajectitiæ causa possit, id ipsum protestatione coram bonis viris complectendum, quæ loco petitionis seu denunciationis erit l. 2. D. h. t. Debitor verò liberatur, si per eum non steterit, quo minus id quod debebat, dicto die solveret. l. 105. de V.O. XI. Postquam navis salva domum rediit, mercatori indulgentur viginti die- rum induciæ ad distrahendas merces & H 6 coni-
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Delire Maritimo Lib. II. 179 when a ship destined for a certain place takes on risk, if the debtor, after illicit merchandise has been taken aboard the ship, sails elsewhere for the sake of greater profit, and there loses the goods or the ship by confiscation, this will not be at the creditor’s risk, but at the debtor’s: since it happened not from the danger of the sea-storm, but from the debtor’s rash boldness and uncivil greed (so the law seems to read) l. 3. Cod. de naut. fæn. see also Demosth. orat. contra Dionysodor. X. Sometimes a penalty of money of carriage across is customarily promised, which is incurred by delay, even after the debtor has died and the inheritance lies vacant l. 9. D. h. tit. Yet the penalty of money of carriage across cannot be claimed if the creditor has been in default in receiving on the appointed and express day l. 8. D. eod. Otherwise, if he had begun to demand it, and, being hindered by ill health, had ceased to demand, the penalty would not be incurred. l. 23. ff. de oblig. & act. If there is no one at hand who, on the debtor’s side, can be summoned for the purpose of money of carriage across, that fact itself is to be covered by a protestation before honorable men, which shall stand in place of a request or denunciation l. 2. D. h. t. But the debtor is released if it was not his fault that he did not pay what he owed on the stated day. l. 105. de V.O. XI. After the ship has safely returned home, a twenty-day respite is granted to the merchant for selling the goods & H 6 coni-
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180 Ioh. Loccenii conficiendam pecuniam, quam creditoribus suis solvat, una cum usuris. Quod si pecunia credita diutius maneat penes debitorem, reliqui temporis post illos dies elapsos non amplius maritimæ usuræ, sed communes usitatæque solventur: quia tunc desit esse periculum creditoris l.4. l.6. D. denaut. fæn. l. 1. C. eod. Nov. 106. Cujac. lib. 27. obs. c. 37. Salmas. c. 3. de mod. usur. pag. 91. & c. 8. p. 308. XII. Subjiciam hic exemplum rei judicatæ de Nautico fœnore, quod ante tredecim annos in judiciis Regiis hujus regni discussum est, velut mihi amicus per literas bona fide retulit: Navi NN. à R H. per negligentiam naucleri confiscata, nauclerus nullam scit elabendirimam, donec institor (Factor) Mercatorum H. ultrò pollicitatur se navim illam liberaturum, modò det ipsi obligationem ad modum nautici fœnoris pro sorte 4000. marcarum. Nauclerus in angustiis constitutus ejusmodi syngrapham dat factori, eum tamen ne teruntium quidem ab eo accepisset. Interim in collegio Admiralitatis ejus loci in quo navis erat, de ea disceptatur, navis libera declaratur. Mercatores H. nihilominus pecuniam secundum obligationem datam, à nauclero & ejus principalibus efflagitant primò in judicio Gotheburgensi, ubi per interlocutoriam res ita deciditur: quampri- mum
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180 Ioh. Loccenii to procure the money which he shall pay to his creditors, together with the interest. But if the money lent remains longer in the hands of the debtor, for the remainder of the time after those days have elapsed, not maritime interest, but the common and customary interest shall be payable; because then the creditor’s risk ceases. l. 4. l. 6. D. de naut. fæn. l. 1. C. eod. Nov. 106. Cujac. lib. 27. obs. c. 37. Salmas. c. 3. de mod. usur. pag. 91. & c. 8. p. 308. XII. I shall here add an example of a matter adjudged concerning nautical usury, which thirteen years ago was discussed in the Royal courts of this kingdom, as a friend of mine faithfully reported to me in letters: a ship NN., by the negligence of the shipmaster, having been confiscated by R H., the shipmaster did not know how to free himself at all, until a factor (the merchant’s agent) of the merchants of H. voluntarily promised that he would free that ship, provided that the shipmaster gave him an obligation in the manner of nautical usury for a principal sum of 4000 marks. The shipmaster, being in straits, gives such a bond to the factor, although he had not received from him even a farthing. Meanwhile, in the Admiralty college of the place where the ship was, the matter is debated; the ship is declared free. Nevertheless, the merchants of H. demand the money according to the obligation given, from the shipmaster and his principals, first in the court of Gothenburg, where by interlocutory decision the matter is thus resolved: as soon as
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 181 num H. mercatores probaverint, pecuniam nauclero ab ipsorum factore esse numeratam, debere & eum & ejus principales illam H. mercatoribus cum debitis usuris refundere. ad cujus interlocutoriæ impletionem sex mensium spatium illis indultum est. quo elapso redeunt. & pecuniam sine ulla interlocutoriæ impletione iterum postulant, aut navem unà cum mercibus tanquam hypothecam loco pecunia. Re- petitur in judicio interlocutoria, in eaque con- cluditur, & sententia fertur, à qua mercato- res H. appellant ad Regium Iudicium Gothicum. Interim dilatione ad priorem interlocu- toriam implendam & alia documenta affe- renda data & elapsa, secundum Gothebur- genses pronunciatur, iisque liberi & immunes ab intentione actorum declarantur, actores verò debere damni sui, si quod passi sunt, resti- tutionem à Factore repetere. Adversus hanc R. judicii sententiam Revisio à victis petita est, sed irrito conatu, cum sententia R. Iudicii Gothici sit ibidem confirmata, excepta solum- modo litis expensarum adjudicatione. CAP. VII. De Iactu. I. Quid sit Iactus. II. III. Quando & quomodo faciendus. IV.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 181 if H. the merchants proved that the money had been paid by their factor to the shipmaster, he and his principals ought to refund it to the H. merchants with due interest. For the fulfilment of this interlocutory decree, a period of six months was granted them. When this had elapsed, they returned, and again demanded the money without any fulfilment of the interlocutory decree, or else the ship together with the goods as a hypothec in place of the money. The interlocutory decree was repeatedly sought in court, and in it they con- cluded, and judgment was given, from which the merchants H. appealed to the Royal Gothic Court. Meanwhile, after the delay granted for fulfilling the former interlocutory decree and for producing other documents had been given and elapsed, judgment was pronounced for the Gothenburgers, and they were declared free and immune from the plaintiffs’ claim; but the plaintiffs were said to have to seek compensation for their loss, if any they had suffered, from the Factor. Against this judgment of the R. court, a Revision was sought by the defeated parties, but in vain, since the judgment of the R. Gothic Court was there confirmed, except only as regards the award of costs. CAP. VII. On Jettison. I. What Jettison is. II. III. When and how it is to be made. IV.
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182 Ioh. Loccenii IV. In quibus rebus locum habeat. V. Pro derelicio non esse habendum, quod quis salutis causa ejectit. VI. De temerario aut lascivo jactu. VII. Hominis in mare projecti poena. I. Si naufragii periculum in propinquo sit, solet ei, quum non aliud superest remedium, jactu occurri. Iactus no- men aliquando pro jactu retis, hîc verò pro jactu mercium accipitur, qui navis levandæ caussa fit: aliàs jactura authoribus dicitur ut fusius notavi ad Curtium; Sued. Kast. II. Iactus faciendus non nisi metu præsente & justo naufragii, atque laborante nave l. 2. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu l. 6. D. de mort. c. donat. Vani autem timoris justa excusatio non est nec restitutio l. 184. D. de reg. jur. ut si ex inani & non timenda re in animo meticulosi hominis pavor oriatur. Iustus autem metus est, si subita aut gravis procella tam vehementer jactet navem ut minetur naufragium, nisi jactu mercium allevetur: hîc necessitas imperat jactum; unde dicitur in l. 2. ß. 2. D. h. t. tempestate gravi orta, necessario jactura facta erat; aut si saxo vel fundo illidatur navis. exemplum inter alia habemus Ionæ 1. v. ß. 6 Actor. c. 27. III. Si
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182 Ioh. Loccenii IV. In what matters it has application. V. That it is not to be regarded as derelict property which one has thrown overboard for the sake of safety. VI. Concerning reckless or wanton jettison. VII. The penalty for a man thrown into the sea. I. If the danger of shipwreck is near at hand, one usually meets it by jettison, when no other remedy remains. The word jactus is sometimes taken for the casting of a net; here, however, it is taken for the casting overboard of merchandise, which is done for the sake of lightening the ship; otherwise it is called jactura by the authorities, as I have noted more fully in my note on Curtius; Sued. Kast. II. Jettison is to be made only when there is present and just fear of shipwreck, and when the ship is in distress, l. 2. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu l. 6. D. de mort. c. donat. But groundless fear is no just excuse, nor a basis for restitution, l. 184. D. de reg. jur. as when panic arises in the mind of a fearful man from an empty and not-to-be-feared matter. Just fear, however, exists if a sudden or severe storm so violently tosses the ship that it threatens shipwreck unless it is lightened by throwing goods overboard: here necessity commands the jettison; whence it is said in l. 2. § 2. D. h. t. when a severe storm arose, a jettison had necessarily been made; or if the ship is driven against a rock or the bottom. We have an example, among others, in Jonah 1 v. § 6 Actor. c. 27. III. If
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 183 III. Si quidam vectorum ejicere merces velint, quidam recusent, plurium consensus hîc obtinebit c. 11. L L. Sued. de jure nautic. Nam de majoris partis sententia jactum fieri, est consuetudinis nauticæ. Si verò ipsi mercatores ac vectores nolint in jactum consentire, vel absint, tunc si navarchus probet præsens periculum sociis navalibus, aut ipse unà cum gubernatore navis ac principe ministrorum nauticorum secundum Leges marit. V Visby. aut secundum alios, ex consilio majoris partis nautarum consentiat in jactum, domumque reversus cum trinâ manu nautarum jurato testari possit de præsenti periculo & necessitate, etiam invitis mercatoribus jactus fieri solet & potest. art. 20. Iur. maritim. VVisbyens. & Statut. nautic. Westcapell. Quintinus VVeitse de Contrib. p. m. 464. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 195. 222. Idem observandum, si navis metu naufragii exarmari, malus vel anchora navis aut rudentes amputari debeant. arg. l. 2. ß. 1. in fin. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. IV. Prius autem ejiciendæ merces majoris ponderis & minoris pretii. Sallustius orat. vel Ep. 2. de rep. ord. Si quid adversè coortum est (in navigatione) de illis potissimum jactura fit, quæ pretii minimi sunt. Et prius merces navi clam inscio navarcho impo-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 183 III. If some of the cargo owners wish to throw goods overboard, and others refuse, the consent of the majority here prevails, c. 11. L L. Sued. de jure nautic. For that a jettison is made according to the opinion of the greater part is the custom of sailors. But if the merchants themselves and the cargo owners do not wish to consent to the jettison, or are absent, then if the shipmaster proves the present danger to his fellow seamen, or if he himself together with the ship’s pilot and the chief of the nautical crew, according to the Maritime Laws of Visby, or according to others, agrees to the jettison upon the advice of the greater part of the sailors, and on returning home with three seamen can swear testimony as to the present danger and necessity, then even against the will of the merchants a jettison is usually made and may be made. art. 20. Iur. maritim. VVisbyens. & Statut. nautic. Westcapell. Quintinus VVeitse de Contrib. p. m. 464. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 195. 222. The same is to be observed if, through fear of shipwreck, the ship must be disarmed, or the mast or anchor of the ship or the rigging cut away. arg. l. 2. ß. 1. in fin. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. IV. First, however, the goods of greater weight and lesser value are to be thrown overboard. Sallustius orat. vel Ep. 2. de rep. ord. If anything adverse has arisen (in navigation), the loss is made chiefly of those things that are of the least price. And first goods secretly loaded onto the ship without the shipmaster's knowledge impo-
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184 Ioh. Loccenii impositæ aut suppressæ, quam aliæ. c. 13. LL. Suetic. de jure naut. Indicanda etiam in tempore sunt bona cistis inclusa, antequam cistæ ejiciantur: quod nisi fiat, solæ cistæ quales extrinsecus apparent, non bona quæ in illis sunt, in æstimationem veniunt. art. 40. Iur. marit. VVisb. Grot. Introd. jur. Holl. part. 29. vid. et in fin. c. 13. Iur. naut. Suet. Propriæ quoque res potius quam alienæ, in quas nihil juris habemus, jaciendæ sunt. Si quis tamen rerum suarum servandarum causa alienas in mare projiciat, tenetur magistro navis ex conducto, & hic ex locato tenetur iterum domino mercium: ut detrimentum pro portione communicetur l. 2. h. t. non obstante, quod in l. 14. D. de præscr. verb. ulla actione teneri negatur: quia fecit hoc ex magna & necessaria causa, nimirum se &c navem cum suis mercibus servandi, non ex Levitate & dolo. eatenus ergo non retetur. quod colligere est ex ists legis verbis: Si sine causa id fecisset, in factum, si dolo, de dolo tenetur. AEquum tamen est, damnum ejus cujus merces jactæ sunt, contributione eorum, quorum merces servatæ sunt sarciri. l. 1. 2. h. t. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 196. 197. 198 quem vide. Si verò jaciantur alienæ merces, quas magister navis ex benevolentia & amicitia, nullum
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184 Ioh. Loccenii imposed or suppressed, rather than others. c. 13. LL. Suetic. de jure naut. It must also be indicated in time when goods enclosed in chests are to be thrown overboard, before the chests are cast out: for if this is not done, only the chests as they appear externally, not the goods contained in them, are taken into consideration. art. 40. Iur. marit. VVisb. Grot. Introd. jur. Holl. part. 29. vid. et in fin. c. 13. Iur. naut. Suet. Likewise, one’s own goods rather than those of others, in which we have no right at all, ought to be thrown overboard. If, however, someone for the sake of preserving his own property throws another’s goods into the sea, he is liable to the master of the ship ex conducto, and the latter is liable ex locato to the owner of the merchandise in turn: so that the loss is shared proportionally. l. 2. h. t. notwithstanding, that in l. 14. D. de præscr. verb. it is denied that he is bound by any action: because he did this from a great and necessary cause, namely to save himself etc. and the ship together with its cargo, not out of levity or fraud. To that extent, therefore, he is not liable. This may be gathered from the words of the law: If he had done it without cause, he would be liable in factum; if with fraud, for deceit. Yet it is just that the loss of the person whose goods were jettisoned be made good by the contribution of those whose goods were saved. l. 1. 2. h. t. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. p. 196. 197. 198, whom see. But if goods belonging to another are thrown overboard, which the master of the ship, out of goodwill and friendship, no
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 185 nullum pro iis pactus naulum; transvehendas recepit, de iis non tenetur. Statut. Prussic. lib. 4. tit. 19. art. 2. ß. 3. V. Si quis jactum fecerit eo animo, ut si salvum fuerit, habeat, occupanti cedere nequit: quia jaciens non habuit animum derelinquendi. Itaque qui scit hoc & invenit, furti tenetur. Si verò hoc animo inveniens occupet, ut salvum faciat domino: aut si simpliciter vel derelinquendi animo jactatum (quod non facile præsumitur, nisi probetur l. 25. D. de prob.) occupet, furtum non facit: quod enim nullius est, cedit occupanti. l. Falsus ß. si jactum D. defurt. Sed jactu levandæ navis caussa ex necessitate sit. Seneca: Necessitas est, quæ navigia jactu exonerat; nec jacentes hanc mentem habent, ut res jactas pro derelicto habeant, ideò dominorum ex permanent ß. 48. Inst. de rer div. Lyklama lib. 7. Membr. ecl. 47. ß. 1. Verum cum de hac re lib. 1. Iur. maritim. cap. 7. ß. 6. fusius egerim, hîc brevior ero. VI. Hactenus de jactu qui necessitatis caussa sit. sed temerarius ac lascivus jactus est, si quis culpa vel dolo quid in mare ejecerit. Vt, si quis calicem alterius ex nave in profundum per negligentiam labi pariatur, aut nummos alteri excusserit, ut influmen cadant, aut aliud quid de nave deje-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 185 Having stipulated no freight for them; if he received them to be carried across, he is not liable for them. Statut. Prussic. lib. 4. tit. 19. art. 2. ß. 3. V. If someone has made a jettison with this intention, that if the goods are saved he may have them, they cannot pass to an occupier: because the person who threw them overboard did not have the intention of abandoning them. Therefore, he who knows this and finds them is liable for theft. But if the finder takes them with the intention of preserving them for the owner; or if he takes possession of goods jettisoned simply or with the intention of abandoning them (which is not easily presumed, unless proved, l. 25. D. de prob.), he does not commit theft: for what belongs to no one passes to the first possessor. l. Falsus ß. si jactum D. de furt. But a jettison made for the purpose of lightening a ship must be from necessity. Seneca: Necessity is what unloads ships by jettison; and those who throw things overboard do not have this intention, that they should regard the things cast out as abandoned, therefore they remain the property of their owners ß. 48. Inst. de rer. div. Lyklama lib. 7. Membr. ecl. 47. ß. 1. But since I have dealt more fully with this matter in lib. 1. Iur. maritim. cap. 7. ß. 6., I shall be brief here. VI. Thus far about a jettison made from necessity. But it is a reckless and wanton jettison if anyone, through fault or fraud, throws anything into the sea. As if someone, through negligence, causes another man’s cup to fall from a ship into the deep, or knocks another person’s coins away so that they fall into a river, or casts some other thing from the ship overboard-
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186 Ioh. Loccenii dejecerit, in factum actione, vel de dam- no dato tenetur l. 14. ß. 2. de præscr. verb. l. 55. in fin. de adq. rer. dom. l. 27. ß. 21. ad l. Æquil. l. 6. ß. 3. de his qui dejec. VII. Si quis hominem in amnem aut mare præcipitaverit, ita ut pereat, est poena capitis c. 14. de vulner volunt. Iur. Suet. civit. Et Quintilianus declam. 350. Si quis in aquas præcipitatus sit, eadem lege vindicabitur, qua ille qui ferro percussus sit. Si non pereat, est poena pecuniaria c. 3. de jure nav. Suet. conf. l. 7. ß. 7. D. ad leg. Æquil. ß. 11. Inst. eod. Si quis alium cum ar- matis hominibus navi sua dejecerit, est vis publica; aut si mandarit per alium dejici; quæ vis intendit poenam. l. 1. ß. 7. D. de vi & vi arm. l. 3. ß. ult. l. 4. D. ad leg. Iul. de vi pub. Straccha part. 4. de Nav. n. 5. CAP. VIII. De Contributione. I. De appellationibus, & re ipsa præsentis argumenti. II. Ejus origo & æquitas. III. Quotuplex sit. IV. V. VI. VII. Qui & quando contribuere teneantur. VIII. De
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186 Ioh. Loccenii if he has thrown someone down, he is liable by an action on the facts, or for damage caused, l. 14. § 2. de præscr. verb. l. 55. in fin. de adq. rer. dom. l. 27. § 21. ad l. Æquil. l. 6. § 3. de his qui dejec. VII. If anyone has hurled a man into a river or sea so that he dies, the penalty is capital, c. 14. de vulner volunt. Iur. Suet. civit. And Quintilian, declam. 350. If anyone has been thrown into the waters, he shall be prosecuted under the same law as one who has been struck with a sword. If he does not die, the penalty is monetary, c. 3. de jure nav. Suet. conf. l. 7. § 7. D. ad leg. Æquil. § 11. Inst. eod. If anyone has thrown another, together with armed men, from his ship, it is public violence; or if he has ordered it to be done through another; this kind of violence carries a penalty. l. 1. § 7. D. de vi & vi arm. l. 3. § ult. l. 4. D. ad leg. Iul. de vi pub. Straccha part. 4. de Nav. n. 5. CAP. VIII. On Contribution. I. Concerning the titles and the matter itself of the present subject. II. Its origin and equity. III. Of how many kinds it is. IV. V. VI. VII. Who is bound to contribute and when. VIII. On
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 187 VIII. IX. X. XI. De æstimatione rerum, pro quibus contributio debetur. XII. Retentio mercium pro contributione. XIII. & seqq. In quibus casibus cesset con- tributio. I. QVando merces è navi ob dictam superius caussam jactæ sunt, damnum hoc contributione relevari solet. Hu- jusmodi contributio aliàs tributum vel colla- tio, mercatoribus Avarie nuncupatur, vel Haverie/ non à Græco bægs aut bæps, ut putat V Veitsius in suo de contributio- ne Tractatu, sed vel â Gallico havre, ut Boxhornius in epist. ad Vinnium derivavit, vel quod idem, â Teutonico Haven/ por- tu: unde & Haveren vel Haverie expresse in Statutis Hanseatic. de jure maritim art. 37. & in jure Hamb. part. 2. t. 16. a. 4. 7. dicitur. velut enim alias quasdam voces in foro mercatorum usitatas ipsis mercatori- bus debemus, ita & hanc, ex ipsius rei occasione, ut solet, natam. Quid enim aliud est Avaria, quam id, quod ab his quorum merces & bona in portum salva delata sunt, in eos confertur, quibus merces & bona sua jactu perierunt? ut rectè observavit Boxhornius dicto loco. Firmat illud, quod in jure Lubec. lib. 6. tit.2. de jactu dicitur: jactum æstimandum esse
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 187 VIII. IX. X. XI. On the valuation of goods, for which contribution is due. XII. Retention of merchandise for contribution. XIII. & seq. In which cases contribution ceases. I. When merchandise has been thrown from the ship for the above-mentioned cause, this loss is usually relieved by contribution. Such contribution is otherwise called by merchants tributum or collatio, Avarie or Haverie; not from the Greek bægs or bæps, as V. Veitsius thinks in his Treatise on Contribution, but either from the French havre, as Boxhornius derived it in a letter to Vinnius, or, as the same author holds, from the Teutonic Haven, a harbor: whence Haveren or Haverie is expressly said in the Statutes of the Hanseatic League, on maritime law, art. 37, and in the Hamburg law, part 2, tit. 16, art. 4. 7. For just as we owe other terms customary in the merchants’ forum to the merchants themselves, so also this one, born, as usual, from the occasion of the thing itself. For what else is Avaria than that which is imposed upon those whose merchandise and goods have been safely brought into port, upon those whose merchandise and goods have perished by jettison? as Boxhornius rightly observed in the passage cited. This is confirmed by what is said in the Lübeck law, lib. 6, tit. 2, on jettison: that jettison is to be estimated
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188 Ioh. Loccenii esse pro quota mercium, quanti æstimari possunt in destinato portu, als das Gut gela- ten möchte in der HAVEN dahin sie zu segeln bedacht waren/ ubi etiam statim solutio fieri debet. quamvis autem contributio etiam pro alio detrimento, de quo postea, fieri possit, tamen præcipue ob jactas & deper- ditas merces sit:unde & Suedicè Rast-geld/ Belgicè Werp-geld/ Germ. Werff-geldt ap- pellatur. II. Hæc contributionis ratio primum le- ge Rhodia existimatur esse instituta, ex mente legis 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. AEquitas tamen ejus evidens & naturali rationi consentanea jure scripto est anti- quior: ut nimirum omnium contributione sarciatur, quod pro omnibus damnum con- tigit; præsertim contributione eorum qui amissis rebus aliorum suas salvas retinue- runt alioqui perituras, atque in hoc facti sunt locupletiores. Idcircò etiam ab aliis gentibus approbata, in mores legesque eorum recepta est: ut & jure Suedorum c.11.13. de jure nautic. III. Contributio vel Avaria, ut vulgò vocant, duplex est, communis & grossa sive grandis, ut eam ex communi mercatorum stylo vel praxi dividit, & describit Vinnius in Peck. ad legem Rhod. de jactu pag.193. se- quentibus verbis: Avaria communis est 1. Pecunia
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188 Ioh. Loccenii is to be for the proportion of the goods, as much as they can be estimated at in the destined port, as the cargo was to be loaded in the HAVEN toward which they had resolved to sail, where also payment must then immediately be made. Although, however, the contribution may also be made for some other loss, of which later, yet it is chiefly for goods thrown overboard and lost: hence it is also called in Swedish Rast-geld, in Dutch Werp-geld, in German Werff-geldt. II. This rule of contribution is thought to have been first established by the Rhodian law, according to the mind of law 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Yet its equity is evident and more ancient than written law, and in accordance with natural reason: namely, that by the contribution of all, that may be made good which has happened as a loss for all; especially by the contribution of those who, their own goods being lost, retained safe the goods of others that otherwise would have perished, and by this became richer. Therefore it was also approved by other nations and received into their customs and laws: as also in the law of the Swedes, c.11.13. de jure nautic. III. Contribution, or Avaria, as they commonly call it, is twofold: common and gross or great, as Vinnius, following the common mercantile style or practice, divides and describes it in Peck. ad legem Rhod. de jactu, p. 193, in the following words: Avaria communis is 1. Money
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 189 Pecunia quæ datur piscatoribus aut aliis personis locorum gnaris, ut navem salvam cum mercibus in tuto constituant. 2. quod solvitur ab iisdem, dum prætervehuntur arces sive in fluminibus sive portubus. 3. quod solvitur pro navibus è flumine aut portu educendis. Hæc contributio vel Avaria dicitur communis, quod hæ impensæ sarciuntur communi contributione mercium pro rata valoris cujusque; navis autem ipsa in hanc contributionem non vocatur. Avaria grossa vel grandis est, cum quædam merces jaciuntur in mare levandæ laborantis navis gratia, aut armamenta navis, malus, anchoræ, rudentes, communis periculi removendi causa, dejiciuntur vel ceduntur voluntate navigantium: atque hoc damnum contributione omnium, ipsius etiam nautæ resarcitur. Vid. art. 12. 20. 21. 61. L. L. V Visbyens. Quintin. V Veits. tract. de Avar. Grot. 3. introd. ad jurispr. Bat. 29. IV. Omnes autem quorum interest jacturam factam esse, cum eâ vita, res & navis eorum servatæ fuerint, conferre oportet, sive ponderosas, sive leves merces, quibus navis non oneratur, ut, aureos nummos, gemmas, margaritas, annulos navi imposuerint. adeò ut ne vestimenta quidem alicujus excipiantur, puta quæ cistæ inclusa, aut pro sarcina sunt; nec alia quæcunque cap. 11, 13. jur. naut, suet. ne qui-
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On Maritime Law, Book II, 189 Money which is given to fishermen or other persons familiar with the locality, in order that they may bring the ship safely with the cargo into security. 2. that which is paid by the same persons when they are conducted past forts, whether in rivers or in harbors. 3. that which is paid for ships being led out of a river or harbor. This contribution is also called general average, because these expenses are made good by a common contribution of the cargoes in proportion to the value of each; but the ship itself is not called upon to contribute to this. Gross or large average is when certain goods are thrown into the sea for the sake of lightening a ship in distress, or the equipment of the ship, the mast, anchors, ropes, are cast overboard or surrendered, with the voluntary consent of those sailing, for the purpose of removing a common danger: and this loss is made good by the contribution of all, even of the seaman himself. See art. 12, 20, 21, 61. L. L. V. Visbyens. Quintin. V. Veits. tract. de Avar. Grot. 3. introd. ad jurispr. Bat. 29. IV. Moreover, all those whose interest it is that the jettison has been made, when with their lives, property, and ship have been preserved, ought to contribute, whether heavy or light goods, with which the ship is not burdened, such as gold coins, gems, pearls, rings have been put on board the ship. So that even clothing of any person is not excepted, for example that which is contained in a chest, or is for luggage; nor any other things whatsoever, cap. 11, 13. jur. naut. suet. ne qui-
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Ioh. Loccenii 190 quidem res alienæ aut pignori obligatæ. Vinn. d. loc. p. 232. Ratio est quod hoc tributum ob servatas res (ita emenda pro observatæ res) debent l.2. ß. 2. ß. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Quin ipse navis dominus proportione obligatur, quando navem suam habet salvam cap. 1 1. LL. Svetic. de jure naut. d. l. 2. art. 20. jur. marit. VVisby. Nautis verò ac ministris nauticis lus maritimum VVisbyiense tantum unum vas immune relinquit d. art. 20. & ne quidem illud, si negligentiores fuerint in servanda nave. Quædam statuta non nisi certas illis sarcinas immunes à contributione concedunt. V. Contributio ab omnibus præstanda est, non solum quando jactæ sunt merces, sed etiam quando navis pecuniâ numeratâ aut mercibus onusta à piratis aut hostibus expugnata vel capta, redimenda est: quia ista redemtio servavit navem cum numis & mercibus l. 2. ß. 3. de jactu. Siergo navem à piratis captam nauta redemerit, promissa certa pecuniæ summa, pro qua ipse interim captivus detineatur, liberandus erit communibus impensis, pro rata æstimationis cujusque mercium & ipsius navis. Vinn. ad leg. Rhod: de jact. pag. 217. quòd verò prædones uni vel alteri abstulerunt, is perdit cujus id fuit: cum res suo domino percat, & casui fortuito imputetur. ACC
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Ioh. Loccenii 190 indeed, foreign goods or goods pledged as security. Vinn. d. loc. p. 232. The reason is that this contribution is due for preserved property (so read for “observatæ res”) l. 2. §. 2. §. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Moreover, even the owner of the ship himself is bound in proportion, when he has saved his own ship, cap. 11. LL. Svetic. de jure naut. d. l. 2. art. 20. jur. marit. WVisby. But the maritime law of Visby leaves only one vessel immune for sailors and ship’s servants, d. art. 20. and not even that, if they have been negligent in preserving the ship. Certain statutes grant immunity from contribution only to certain parcels of their cargo. V. Contribution must be made by all, not only when goods have been thrown overboard, but also when a ship, loaded with money or merchandise, has been stormed or captured by pirates or enemies and has to be redeemed: because such redemption saved the ship together with the money and goods, l. 2. §. 3. de jactu. If, therefore, a sailor redeems a ship captured by pirates, by a fixed promised sum of money, for which he himself is meanwhile held captive, he shall be freed at the common expense, in proportion to the estimated value of each person’s goods and of the ship itself. Vinn. ad leg. Rhod: de jact. p. 217. But what robbers have taken from one or another, that is lost by him whose it was; for the thing perishes to its own owner, and is imputed to chance. ACC
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Delure Maritimo Lib. II. 191 nec is confert, qui merces suas redemit. Hic enim particulare solum periculum est, ergo illorum tantùm, quorum res fuerunt, damnum erit. d. l. 2. ß. 3. in fin. Si verò tota navis expugnata & redemta sit, commune est periculum & communis utilitas: itaque omnes ad redemptionem obligati erunt. Klock. de Contribut c 17. n. 302. O seq c. 19. n. 337. Hinc etiam commune detrimentum per hostes aut piratas illatum, & quidem extra incuria[n] nautarum, secundum commu- nem praxin computatur ut avaria vel con- tributio grandis, in omnes naves & bona. Statut. marit. Hans. art. 37. Grot. lur. H p. 22. Item si malus aut aliud navis instrumentum voluntate vectorum, vel ob metum naufragii cæsum sit, ut navis cum merci- bus liberetur, æquitas contributionis ha- bebit locum l. 2. ß. 1. in fin. l. 3. l. 5. ß. 1. ad leg. Rhod. art. 21. LL. Visb. c. 35. O 43. LL. Rhod. Contributio quoque deberi putatur, si voluntate vectorum, aut majoris partis consensu navis in littus impacta sit. Vinn. d. loc. pag. 208. aut aliàs casu fundo illisa sit. c. 11. lur. Nautic. Sved. VI. Si navis pluribus mercibus onera- ta portum intrare nequeat, ideoque mer- ces in leviorem navem aut scapham tra- jectæ sint, quæ submersa est, illi qui in navi reliquas merces salyas habent, hoc mer-
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Delure Maritimo Lib. II. 191 nor does it apply to him who has bought back his own goods. For here the risk is only particular, therefore only those whose goods were involved will suffer the loss. d. l. 2. §. 3. in fin. But if the whole ship has been captured and ransomed, the risk is common and the benefit common: therefore all will be bound to contribute to the ransom. Klock. de Contribut c. 17. n. 302. O seq c. 19. n. 337. Hence also a common loss inflicted by enemies or pirates, and indeed beyond the fault of the seamen, according to the common practice is computed as average or a great contribution, upon all ships and goods. Statut. marit. Hans. art. 37. Grot. Iur. H p. 22. Also, if a mast or some other ship’s tackle is cut down by the will of the passengers, or out of fear of shipwreck, so that the ship may be saved together with the cargo, the equity of contribution shall have place l. 2. §. 1. in fin. l. 3. l. 5. §. 1. ad leg. Rhod. art. 21. LL. Visb. c. 35. O 43. LL. Rhod. Contribution is also thought to be due, if, by the will of the passengers, or with the consent of the greater part, the ship has been driven onto the shore. Vinn. d. loc. pag. 208. or otherwise by accident has struck the bottom. c. 11. Iur. Nautic. Sved. VI. If a ship loaded with several kinds of merchandise is unable to enter the port, and therefore the goods are transferred into a lighter ship or boat, which is sunk, those who have the remaining safe goods in the ship, this mer-
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192 Ioh. Loccenii mercium damnum contributione sarcient: quia per hoc illorum merces servatæ sunt l. 4. D. de jactu. & cum consensu mercatorum aut vectorum hoc factum præsumitur aut probatur l. 13. ß. 1. D. locati. Si verò invito domino & absque necessitate, culpa nautæ merces in deteriorem navem translatæ sint, eaque navis cum mercibus perierit, cum nauta erit domino actio ex locato conducto d. l. 13. Aliud verò statuendum, si id sine dolo & culpa ejus factum sit l. 10. ß. 1. de jactu. Sed hac de replura inf. lib 3. cap. 5. ß. 7. Si navis in tempestate, jactu mercium unius mercatoris levata, in alio loco submersa sit, & aliquorum mercatorum merces per urinatores pro certa mercede extractæ sint, contributio præstabitur illi cujus merces jactæ sunt ab iis, qui postea per urinatores merces suas salvas receperunt l. 4. ß. 1. de jactu Paul. lib. 2. Sent. 7. ß. 2. quia jactus factus est ob navim & residuas merces servandas. Atque si jactus non esset factus, mercator (cujus jactæ merces) commodum vel retinendi vel recuperandi in totum aut ex parte habuisset, ut reliqui mercatores: quod commodum ipsi per jactu est ademtum: ergo à reliquis pro portione resarcendum. Quint. Weitz. de contr. p. 463. col. 1. ubi hoc in quotidiana praxi observari testatur. VII. Hoc
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192 Johannes Loccenius loss of cargo shall be made good by contribution; because by this means their goods were preserved l. 4. D. de jactu. And with the consent of the merchants or carriers this is presumed to have been done or proved l. 13. §. 1. D. locati. But if against the will of the owner and without necessity, through the fault of the shipmaster the goods have been transferred to a worse ship, and that ship together with the goods has been lost, then the shipmaster will be liable to the owner by an action ex locato conducto d. l. 13. But otherwise it is to be determined, if this was done without his fraud and fault l. 10. §. 1. de jactu. But more on this below lib. 3. cap. 5. §. 7. If a ship, in a storm, having been lightened by the throwing overboard of the goods of one merchant, has sunk in another place, and the goods of some merchants have been extracted by divers for a fixed reward, contribution shall be made to him whose goods were jettisoned by those who later received their goods safely by means of divers l. 4. §. 1. de jactu Paul. lib. 2. Sent. 7. §. 2. because the jettison was made for the purpose of saving the ship and the remaining goods. And if the jettison had not been made, the merchant whose goods were thrown overboard would have had the advantage either of retaining or recovering them in whole or in part, as the other merchants did: that advantage has been taken from him by the jettison; therefore it must be made good to him by the others in proportion. Quint. Weitz. de contr. p. 463. col. 1. where he testifies that this is observed in everyday practice. VII. This
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 193 VII. Hoc generatim notandum, duo hîc concurrere debere, ut contributioni locus sit, jacturam rerum ex una parte, & conservationem rerum ex altera! parte. ei- que cujus res jactæ sunt præstandam esse contributionem ab his quorum res per hanc jacturam servatæ sunt, ut ista con- tributione damnum eorum resarciatur. Vnde Paulus ait 2. Sent. tit. 7. ß. ult. Colla- tio intributionis ob jactum salva navi fieri de. bet. Vtilitas quoque & æquitas suasit, ut quod de jactu cautum erat, interpretatione porrigeretur ad simile damnum ex alia caussa datum, Vinn. d. loc. pag. 206. Quo percepto, ut ait, non erit difficile de aliis quæstionibus quæ hîc incidunt, judicare. VIII. Res autem jactæ sic æstimandæ sunt, ut tam salvæ quam amissæ res cum navi in æstimationem veniant, non quan- ti istæ merces emtæ sunt, sed quanti jam sunt (forsan adspergine minoris pretii fa- ctæ) & quanti bonorum peritorumque vi- rorum arbitrio æstimari vendique possunt; deductis inde prius vecturæ & aliis necessa- riis expensis. art. 28. L. L. Visbyens. l. 2. ß. 4: de jactu Vinn. d. lib. pag. 219 220. c. 10. formam Island. LL. Quibus omni- bus in unum collatis fiat contributio pro rata bonorum cujusque tam deperdito- rum quam servatorum. Hîc autem pro- portio I
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De Iure Maritimo, Book II. 193 VII. Here it is to be noted in general that two things must concur for contribution to take place: on the one hand, a loss of property, and on the other, the preservation of property. And contribution is to be made to the person whose goods were thrown overboard, by those whose goods were saved through this jettison, so that by that contribution their loss may be compensated. Hence Paulus says, 2. Sent. tit. 7. § ult. Collatio intributionis ob jactum salva navi fieri debet. Utility also and equity have suggested that what was provided concerning jettison should, by interpretation, be extended to a similar loss caused by another reason, Vinn. d. loc. p. 206. Having understood this, as he says, it will not be difficult to decide the other questions that arise here. VIII. The goods thrown overboard are to be valued in such a way that both the goods saved and those lost are taken into account together with the ship, not at what price those wares were originally bought, but at what price they are now worth, perhaps having become of less value through wetting, and at what price they can be appraised and sold by the judgment of honest and experienced men; after first deducting freight and other necessary expenses. art. 28. L. L. Visbyens. l. 2. § 4: de jactu Vinn. d. lib. p. 219, 220. c. 10. form of the Icelandic laws. When all these are brought together, contribution is to be made according to the proportion of each person’s goods, both those lost and those saved. Here, however, the proportion
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194 Ioh. Loccenii portio dupla observabitur, velut innuit l.4. ß.2. d. tit. & pluribus explicat Balduinus in hanc legem. E. c. Ieci decem, tu tua servasti, quæ etiam sunt decem, Sejus sua quæ sunt viginti, & Sempronius sua quæ sunt quadraginta. In collatione ad sarciendum jacturæ damnum Sempronius mihi tribuet quinque, Sejus duo & unius dimidium: tu unum & alterius quadrantem: ego tantundem acceptum mihi feram. Sic contributio respondebit jacturæ. Hoc quoque usu observari notat V Verbius in Tract. de Avaria, ut, si jactura mercium facta sit, antequam dimidum itineris navis confecerit, amissæ merces non pluris æstimentur, quam quanti emtæ sunt. dimidio vero itinere jam superato, eo æstimentur pretio, quo venditæ fuissent loco destinato. Idem moribus Belgarum, Britannorum & Francorum dudum observatum notant viri docti & communi consuetudine nonnihil recessum esse à distinctione Iuris consulti in l. 2. ß. 4. ad dictam legem Rhod. de jactu, textumque ad usum communem accommodandum videri. Sed &c malus, anchora aut rudentes necessitatis causa cæsi, ut jactæ merces æstimabuntur, secundum jus maris V Visbyense art. 2 I. Nummorum æstimatio fiet secundum internam bonitatem. Grot. par. 29. introd. jur. Holp. 36. IX. In
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194 Ioh. Loccenii the double share shall be observed, as is indicated by l. 4. §. 2. d. tit. and explained at length by Balduinus in this law. E.g. I put in ten, you kept yours, which are also ten; Sejus his, which are twenty; and Sempronius his, which are forty. In the contribution for making good the loss of the jettison, Sempronius shall give me five, Sejus two and a half; you one and a quarter; I shall take the same amount for myself as received. Thus the contribution will correspond to the loss. Verbius also notes this is observed in practice in the Tract. de Avaria, so that, if a loss of merchandise has occurred before the ship has completed half the voyage, the goods lost are not to be valued at more than the price at which they were bought. But once half the voyage has been passed, they are to be valued at the price at which they would have been sold at the destination. It is noted by learned men that the same has long been observed in the customs of the Belgians, Britons, and French, and that something has been departed from the distinction of the jurist in l. 2. §. 4. ad the said law Rhod. de jactu, and that the text seems to be adapted to common usage. But also etc. the mast, anchor, or ropes cut for necessity’s sake, so that the goods thrown overboard shall be valued according to the sea law of Visby, art. 2 I. The valuation of money shall be made according to its intrinsic goodness. Grot. par. 29. introd. jur. Holp. 36. IX. In
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 195 IX. In gravi tempestate jacta est cista in qua mercator ait pretiosas gemmas fuisse reconditas, quomodo inde æstimatio & contributio facienda erit? Hîc inspiciendum erit instrumentum contractus nautici, quod charte partie vocant, & rationarium scribæ nautici, quantum pro vectura solverit dominus illius cistæ, pro quantam mercede locarit & ubi depoluerit in navi, à quo inclusas gemmas emerit, quantum vectigal pro iis expenderit, cum similibus circumstantiis; & in tantum æstimanda erit ejus area. Alias si de contentia in area nihil constet, nec dominus ante jactum ea indicaverit magistro navis, tunc in censum communium bonorum venit. & ut extrinsecus apparet, velut cista solum æstimatur. art. 40. jur. mar. V Visby. quint. V Veit. tract. de Avar. sup. c. 7. ß. 4. Quod vero lex Suetica in c. 13. de jure naut. vult jacta bona cistæ inclusa æstimari & contributione sarciri, ut præsentem pecuniam; hoc interpretandum videtur secundum caput. 1 I. cod. ut æstimentur pro rata vel quota, cæter Martatæi/ ut ibidem in genere de omnibus jactis dicitur, & quatenus de illis constat, aut jurato vel per alia documenta adseritur. X. Si magister navis ex Hispania veniens nondum plenam operationem (Pading) ha- beat
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On Maritime Law, Book II. 195 IX. In a severe storm, a chest was thrown overboard in which, as the merchant says, precious gems had been stored; how is the estimate and contribution to be made in this case? Here the instrument of the maritime contract, which they call the charte partie, and the ship scribe’s account book, should be examined, to see how much the owner of that chest paid for freight, for what hire he had chartered it, and where he had placed it on the ship, from whom he bought the enclosed gems, how much duty he had spent on them, together with similar circumstances; and his chest is to be valued only to that extent. Otherwise, if nothing is known about the contents of the chest, and if the owner had not before the jettison informed the ship’s master of them, then it comes into the reckoning of the common goods. And as it appears externally, it is valued only as a chest. art. 40. jur. mar. V Visby. quint. V Veit. tract. de Avar. sup. c. 7. ß. 4. But what the Swedish law in c. 13. de jure naut. requires, namely that goods thrown overboard and enclosed in a chest should be valued and made good by contribution, as present money, seems to be interpreted according to chapter 1. I. cod. ut æstimentur pro rata vel quota, and the rest of Martatæi/, as there it is said in general concerning all jettisons, and insofar as they are established either by oath or by other documents. X. If the ship’s master coming from Spain does not yet have full operation (Pading) ...
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196 Ioh. Loccenii beat, ad quam explendam recipiat in Anglia pannos, quos unà cum mercibus Hispanicis coactus fuit jacere, quæritur an domini mercium Hispanicarum, qui nihil participarunt ex pannis Anglicis, postea in navem receptis teneantur contribuere in prædictam jacturam? Quod affirmatur, si fecerit hoc volentibus dominis mercium Hispanicarum & cæteris sociis. Si verò fecerit hoc magister navis illis invitis ac protestantibus de casu & damno extra cursum & viam ordinariam dato, inde tenebitur ipse magister navis. Weitse p. 465. col. 1. Si verò mercator pro plena mercede totam navim conduxerit, cum ea conditione, ut magister navis alias merces non recipiat in navem, quam ipsius: magister autem navis nihilominus quasdam sarcinas aut merces acceptarit, easque in foris navis collocarit, quas postea coactus est jacere, quæritur num conductor navis ad earum contributionem teneatur? Teneri videtur, quia ejus merces per jacturam sarcinarum in foris positarum salvæ manserunt, quæ tamen in communi periculo fuerunt. Ex quo enim sunt commoda, ejus incommodum ferre æquum est, ut ait Bacchis apud Terentium. Quintinus Veitius hîc adfert exemplum de duobus convivis qui solvere tenentur hospiti sumtus
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196. Ioh. Loccenii it is asked, to make good the loss, whether he who in England receives cloths, which together with the Spanish goods he was forced to cast overboard, ought to contribute to the aforesaid jettison, although the owners of the Spanish goods, who received nothing from the English cloths, were afterward taken into the ship? It is affirmed, if he did this with the consent of the owners of the Spanish goods and the other partners. But if the shipmaster did this against their will and protest, because of an accident and damage arising outside the ordinary course and way, then the shipmaster himself will be liable. Weitse p. 465. col. 1. But if a merchant has hired the whole ship for full freight, on the condition that the shipmaster shall receive no other goods into the ship than his own: yet if the shipmaster nevertheless has accepted certain bales or goods and placed them in the ship’s decks, and later was compelled to cast them overboard, the question is whether the ship’s charterer is bound to contribute toward them? He seems to be bound, because his goods remained safe through the jettison of the bales placed on the decks, although those goods too were in common danger. For since the benefits are his, it is fair that he bear the loss, as Bacchis says in Terence. Quintinus Veitius here gives the example of two guests who are bound to pay the host the expenses
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 197 sumtus convivii, licet de eo expresse non convenerit. quod tamen non satis appositum videtur. Contribuenti tamen datur reconventio adversus navis magistrum, quod contra pactum venit. quamvis enim magister navis possit aliquid in sua navi facere, quod in pacto non est expressum, modò faciat sine damno & periculo alterius; non tamen in præjudicium tertii qui jus quæsitum habet, facere potest. vid. Quintin. 465. XI. Etiamsi corpora hominum libera nullam recipiant æstimationem. l. 2. ß. 2. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, tamen si quis in ministerio navis aut conflictu cumpitatis aut hostibus, læsus, vulneratus aut occisus suerit, hujus detrimenti reparatio cum plena mercede & vectura sumtibusque sepulturæ computari, & communi contributione navis & mercium sarciri solet, ex arbitrio bonorum & peritorum virorum. art. 37. Statut marit. Hanseatic. art. 28. leg. naut. Caroli V. art. 2. leg. nautic. Philippi 2. Reg. Hisp. de jactu. Vinnius ad leg. Rhod. de jact. 213. Si verò eò debilitatis sit redactus miles vel minister nauticus, ut victum sibi quærere non amplius possit, ex publico aletur. d. art. 37. L L. marit. Hanseat. XII. Quamvis illi quorum merces jactæ sunt nullam eo nomine actionem habeant adversus I 3
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 197 the expenses of the banquet, although it was not expressly agreed concerning it. Yet this does not seem quite appropriate. Nevertheless, the contributor is given a counterclaim against the master of the ship, because he acted contrary to the agreement. For although the master of a ship may do something in his ship which is not expressed in the contract, he may do so only without harm and danger to another; he cannot, however, act to the prejudice of a third party who has acquired a vested right. see Quintin. 465. XI. Even though the bodies of men, being free, receive no valuation, l. 2. §. 2. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, nevertheless, if anyone in the service of the ship or in a clash with pirates or enemies should be injured, wounded, or killed, compensation for this loss, together with full wages and freight and the expenses of burial, is customarily computed and made good by a general contribution of the ship and cargo, according to the judgment of honest and learned men. art. 37. Statut marit. Hanseatic. art. 28. leg. naut. Caroli V. art. 2. leg. nautic. Philippi 2. Reg. Hisp. de jactu. Vinnius ad leg. Rhod. de jact. 213. But if a soldier or seaman has been reduced by such disability that he can no longer earn his own living, he shall be maintained at public expense. d. art. 37. L L. marit. Hanseat. XII. Although those whose goods have been thrown overboard have, on that account, no action against I 3
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Ioh. Loccenii. adversus cæteros, quorum simul cum navemerces servatæ sunt: quia nullus hic contractus aut quasi contractus initus est, neque delictum admissum; tamen contra magistrum navis ex locato agere possunt ratione locationis mercium vehendarum: & is cum aliis quorum merces salvæ sunt, ex conducto, ut eorum merces retineat donec portionem damni pro rata præstent. aut, si adsint qui nullas merces vel sarcinas in navi habeant, tamen magister navis cum ipsis agere potest, quatenus locum in navi conduxerunt, ac mercedem pro sui transvectione promiserunt. Licet verò dicatur: qui non habet, quod perdat, ejus periculo nihil est l.12. D. de furt. ideoque nulla actione teneri videantur; tamen viram vel corpus perdere poterant, quod servata navi servatum est. atque si non aliud, tamen vel colligata vestimenta, vel pecuniam secum in itinere habebunt, cujus nomine pro rata conferent. Ius autem retentionis hic æquissimum est: ne si nauta singulos vectores persequi deberet, contributio eludatur: cum sint homines plerunque ignoti, & qui aliò properent, &c nave egressi diffluant ac diffugiant l.2. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, & in eam fusa interpretatio consulenda Balduini, Peckii, Vin. nii, Cujacii 3. Obs. 2. Si quis autem ex ve- ctoribus
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Ioh. Loccenii. against the others, whose goods were saved together with the ship’s cargo: because here no contract or quasi-contract was entered into, and no delict committed; nevertheless against the master of the ship they can bring an action ex locato, by reason of the hiring for the carriage of goods: and he, together with the others whose goods are safe, may proceed ex conducto, so that he retains their goods until they make a proportional contribution to the loss. Or, if there are present persons who have no goods or baggage on board the ship, nevertheless the master of the ship can proceed against them, insofar as they hired a place in the ship, and promised a fare for their own transportation. Although it is said: he who has nothing that he may lose, has nothing at risk, l. 12, D. de furt., and therefore it may seem that they are bound by no action; still they might lose their life or body, which was preserved when the ship was saved. And if nothing else, yet they will at least have either their clothes tied up with them, or money with them on the journey, on whose account they shall contribute pro rata. But the right of retention here is most equitable: lest, if the sailor had to pursue the individual passengers, the contribution be evaded, since they are for the most part unknown men, and such as are hurrying elsewhere, and once they have left the ship they scatter and flee, l. 2, D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, and for that reason the interpretation expanded thereon should be consulted, by Balduinus, Peckius, Vin- nius, Cujacius, Obs. 3. 2. If, however, any one of the passengers...
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 199 ctoribus solvendo non sit, hoc detrimen- tum magistri navis non erit: nec enim for- tunas cujusque nauta excutere debet. l. 2. 5.6 de tit. quod ita accipiendum est, non so- lius magistri navis, sed commune omnium detrimentum fore, qui in navi fuerunt, & ex lege Rhodia ad contributionem vocan- tur. Vinn. d. loc. p. 235. XIII. Reliquum est ostendere, in qui- bus calibus cesset contributio. Et primò dubium esse potest, si jactu facto alicujus res quæ in navi remanserunt, aspergine vel esfluxu deteriores factæ sint, num & ille conferre cogatur? Primo intuitu non vi- detur debere conferre: ne afflicto addatur afflictio, duplicique oneretur damno & collationis, & quod res ejus deteriores factæ sunt. Defendendum tamen est, hunc conferre debere, quia præstat rem deterio- rem, quam nullam habere, & quidem conferre pretio præsente rerum, id est æsti- matis rebus, quanti hodie sunt, non quan- ti erant, cum navi imponerentur. E. c. Si viginti aureorum meræ duorum fuerint, & alterius, res aspergine vel esfluxu dete- riores factæ decem esse cæperint, ille cujus res integræ sunt, pro viginti conferet, hic pro decem. Ita fiet, ut non afficiatur du- plici damno is cujus res deteriores factæ sunt, cum non nidi detracto deterioratio- nis I 4
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. II. 199 If the master is not able to pay the passengers, this loss will not be that of the ship’s master; for a sailor ought not to pry into the fortunes of each individual. l. 2. 5.6 de tit. quod ita accipiendum est, not only the loss of the ship’s master alone, but a common loss of all those who were in the ship, and they are called upon to contribute by the Rhodian law. Vinn. d. loc. p. 235. XIII. It remains to show in what cases contribution ceases. And first a doubt may arise whether, if, after a jettison has been made, any goods that remained in the ship have been damaged by spray or leakage, that person is also compelled to contribute? At first sight it does not seem that he ought to contribute: lest affliction be added to the afflicted, and he be burdened with a double loss, both by the contribution and because his goods have been damaged. However, it must be maintained that he ought to contribute, because it is better to have a damaged thing than none at all; and indeed he must contribute according to the present value of the goods, that is, by the value as assessed, at what they are worth today, not what they were worth when they were loaded on the ship. For example, if two persons had goods worth twenty aurei, and the goods of one of them were damaged by spray or leakage and came to be worth ten, the one whose goods remain intact will contribute for twenty, this one for ten. Thus it will come about that he whose goods have been damaged will not be affected by a double loss, since there is not only the subtraction of the deterioration I 4
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200 Ioh. Loccenii. nis pretio conferat. Inprimis tamen inspiciendum est & distinguendum, ex qua caussa deteriores factæ sint, an propter jactum, & sic collationi pro rata æstimationis locus erit (nam & quod deterius fit, ex parte perit. l. 9. ß. 3. ad exhib. & totum tamen perditum non est) an verò culpa nautæ, quod non bene stiparit & picarit navem, aut non diligenter asservarit merces, nec contra asperginem marinam ciliciis bene texerit: aut, si navis sentina nimis oppleatur, non statim significet iis qui merces in navi habent, ut eas exponant; aut sentinam in tempore non exhauserit: hic contributioni locus non erit, sed nauta cum exercitore, tenebitur. c. 34 leg.nautic. Rhodior. c. 38. Præterea distingendum, an plus sit in collatione an damno contribuentis. Pone mercatorem conferre debere decem aureos, si damnum datum non fuisset; damnum autem adsperginis æstimari duobus aureis; hic plus est in collatione quam damno. Igitur deductis illis duobus aureis, conferre cogetur octo. Si vero damnum sit decem aureorum, collatio duorum, hic quia plus est in damno, quam collatione, dicendum est, cum conferre non debere. Sed ei potius subveniendum esse, & in eum pro rata conferendum, qui deteriores ob jactum res habere coeperit,
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200 Ioh. Loccenii. Nevertheless, it must especially be examined and distinguished from what cause they have become worse, whether on account of jettison, and thus there will be room for contribution according to the proportion of the valuation (for what is made worse is also in part lost. l. 9. §. 3. ad exhib. and yet it is not wholly lost) or whether, indeed, through the fault of the sailor, because he did not properly caulk and pitch the ship, or did not diligently guard the goods, nor properly cover them against sea spray with tarpaulins; or, if the ship’s bilge should become too full, he did not immediately notify those who have goods on the ship, so that they might remove them; or did not bail out the bilge in time: in this case there will be no room for contribution, but the sailor, together with the shipmaster, shall be liable. c. 34 leg. nautic. Rhodior. c. 38. Moreover, it must be distinguished whether the contribution is greater than the loss of the contributor. Suppose a merchant ought to contribute ten gold pieces, if no loss had been inflicted; but the loss from spray is valued at two gold pieces; here there is more in the contribution than in the loss. Therefore, after deducting those two gold pieces, he will be compelled to contribute eight. But if the loss be ten gold pieces, and the contribution two, here, because there is more in the loss than in the contribution, it must be said that he ought not to contribute. But rather he is to be aided, and contribution is to be made to him in proportion, who has begun to have his goods in a worse condition on account of jettison,
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Delure Maritimo Lib. II. 201 rit, ab illis qui res suas servaverint. prout hæc latè Papirius Fronto & Callistratus ex- sequuntur in l. 4. 2. ad legem Rhod. de jactu. XIV. Si jactum fieri necesse sit, quod magister navem plus æquo oneravit, aut perperam collocavit merces in foris, hoc detrimentum non sarcietur communi con- tributione, sed ad exercitorem & magi- strum navis pro rata pertinebit arg. l. 27. 23. D. ad leg. Aquil. l. 30. 2. D. locat. Grot. introd. jur. H. 3, 29. Vinn. ad Peck. 236. So- lius verò exercitoris damnum erit, si ejus voluntate & periculo merces foris imposuerit magister navis. hic tamen quod in hoc consenserit, nec foros puros & non impeditos reliquerit, pro parte mulctabi- tur. XV. Si per imperitiam, aut non adhibito perito loci ductore scopulis illisa navi jactus sit faciendus, id damnum erit ma- gistri navis. Vinn. ad legem Rhod, de jact. p. 236. XVI. Cessat præterea contributio, si nave à piratis expugnata aut capta merces promiscuè & sine delectu à piratis vi raptæ sint, perdit enim quisque quod ejusfuit: quia nec voluntate aliorum amisit, nec ipse volens. l. 2. 3. de jactu & ibi Accurs. vid. sup. 5. nisi aliud convenerit. Sed si nau- clerus 1 5
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. II. 201 from those who have saved their goods, as Papirius Fronto and Callistratus explain at length in l. 4. § 2. ad legem Rhod. de jactu. XIV. If it should become necessary to make a jettison because the master has overloaded the ship beyond what was proper, or has improperly placed the merchandise on the decks, this loss shall not be made good by a common contribution, but shall fall pro rata upon the shipowner and the master, arg. l. 27. § 23. D. ad leg. Aquil. l. 30. § 2. D. locat. Grot. introd. jur. H. 3, 29. Vinn. ad Peck. 236. The loss will belong solely to the shipowner, if the master has put the goods on deck by his volition and at his risk. Yet if he consented to this, and did not leave the decks clear and unobstructed, he shall be fined in part. XV. If, through ignorance, or without calling in an experienced local pilot, the ship has been driven upon rocks, and a jettison must be made, that loss will be the master’s. Vinn. ad legem Rhod. de jact. p. 236. XVI. Moreover, contribution ceases if, after the ship has been overpowered or taken by pirates, the goods are indiscriminately and without selection carried off by force by the pirates; for each person loses only what was his own, since he lost it neither by the will of others nor by his own willing act. l. 2. § 3. de jactu & ibi Accurs. vid. sup. 5. unless something else has been agreed. But if the shipmaster 1 5
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202 Ioh. Loccenii clerus inducat piratam ad specialia bona rapienda, & alia relinquenda, contribuendum erit nomine ablatorum: quia propter demonstrationem raptarum mercium alii consecuti sunt, ut suas salvas haberent. Quintin. VVeits. de contrit. p. 462. XVII. Cessat collatio, si conservatis mercibus deterior facta sit navis, aut à magistro navis exarmata, non requisito consensu vectorum, nec instante periculo naufragii. dissimilis enim earum rerum causa est quæ navis gratia parantur, & earum pro quibus mercedem aliquis accipit. Nam etsi faber incudem aut malleum fregerit, non imputabitur ei qui locavit opus l.2. 6. 1. de jactu. Eadem ratio est, li navis quæ adversa tempestate aut ictu fulminis depressa, deterior reddita, aut armamentis quibusdam exuta aliò naviget, ibique onus recipiat, hi quorum onus est, nautæ pro damno non conferent. Si enim finis harum impensarum respiciatur, magis navis instruendæ quam servandarum mercium caussa factæ sunt l.6. d. tit. Veluti si faber malleum, aut architectus securim fractam resici curaverit, hoc faciet suis, non conductoris operæ sumtibus. XVIII. Cessat porrò contributio, si res jactæ, postea salvæ apparuerint aut restitutæ sint, vel naufragio liberatæ sint; etiam si navis
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202 Ioh. Loccenii the clergy induce a pirate to seize special goods and leave others untouched, a contribution shall be made in the name of the things carried off, because by reason of the showing of the goods that were seized, others obtained that theirs should be kept safe. Quintin. VVeits. de contrit. p. 462. XVII. Contribution ceases, if, the goods having been preserved, the ship has become worse, or has been stripped by the master of the ship, without the consent of the passengers having been sought, and not when danger of shipwreck was pressing. For the cause of the former things is different from that of those which are prepared for the sake of the ship, and of those for which someone receives payment. For even if a smith should break an anvil or a hammer, it will not be charged to the one who hired the work, l.2. 6. 1. de jactu. The same reason applies if a ship, which, having been driven down by a contrary storm or struck by lightning, has been made worse, or stripped of certain rigging, sails on to another place and there takes on cargo; those whose cargo it is, the sailors will not contribute for the loss. For if the purpose of these expenses is considered, they were made more for the fitting out of the ship than for preserving the goods, l.6. d. tit. Just as if a smith or an architect had taken care to repair a broken hammer or axe, he would do this at his own expense, not at the expense of the employer. XVIII. Furthermore, contribution ceases if the things thrown overboard are afterwards found safe or restored, or have been saved from shipwreck; even if the ship
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De lure Maritimo Lib. II. 203 navis perierit. Contributionis enim æquitas unc admittitur, cum jactus remedio cæteris iu communi periculo, salva nave; consultum est l.5. de jact. & quod quisque ex naufragio servat, velut ex incendio sibi servat l.7. eod. Si verò jam contributio fa- cta sit, illi qui contribuerunt agent ex loco cum magistro navis, ut is ex condu- cto experiatur, & quod exegerit, reddat l.2. ß.7. d. tit. XIX. Si navis jactu levata postea nihilo- minus tempestate pereat, nihil contri- buendum est, nisi merces perditæ extra- hantur. Contributioni enim locus nisi sal- vis rebus esse non potest quibus deperditis perinde ab obligatione jactus liberantur vectores, atque debitores interitu speciei. Vesenbec. paratit. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu n.5. ex l.23. de V. O. hic tamen lex 37. de V. O. magis est accommodata, quam lex 23. eod. à Vesenbecio citata. XX. Si scapha, in quam pars mercium, navis onustæ levandæ caussa (de quo casu sup. h. cap. ß.6.) trajecta est, cum istis mer- cibus salvasit, & navis perierit, contribu- tio non habet locum, sed tunc demum, cum per jactum navis servata est l.4. vers. contra si scaphus ff. de jactu. Navi autem amissa collationi locus non est l.4. ß.1. l.1. D. eod. Et hoc est quod Paulus ait lib. 2. I 6 Sent.
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De Iure Maritimo Book II. 203 the ship has perished. For the equity of contribution is admitted only when, by jettison, the others in common danger are saved, the ship remaining safe; see l.5. de jact. and whatever each person saves from a shipwreck, as from a fire, he saves for himself, l.7. eod. But if contribution has already been made, those who have contributed may proceed in the place of the master of the ship, so that he may recover from the carrier, and return what he has collected, l.2. §.7. d. tit. XIX. If a ship, lightened by jettison, is afterwards nevertheless lost in a storm, nothing is to be contributed, unless the lost goods are recovered. For there can be no place for contribution unless the things are preserved; and when these are lost, the passengers are relieved from the obligation of jettison, just as debtors are by the destruction of the subject-matter. Vesenbec. paratit. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu n.5. from l.23. de V. O. Yet here lex 37. de V. O. is more applicable than lex 23. eod., cited by Vesenbecius. XX. If the boat into which a part of the merchandise was transferred, for the purpose of lightening the loaded ship (of which case above, in this chapter, §.6.), is saved together with those goods, and the ship is lost, contribution does not apply; but only then, when, by the jettison, the ship was saved, l.4. vers. contra si scaphus ff. de jactu. But if the ship has been lost, there is no place for contribution, l.4. §.1. l.1. D. eod. And this is what Paulus says in Book 2. I 6 Sent.
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Ioh. Loccenii Sent. t. 7. Nave perditæ, conservatæ cum mercibus scaphæ ratio non habetur. XXI. Cessat denique collatio in cibariis quæ quis in itinere consumendi caussa navi imposuit: quæque, si alia cibaria in navigatione defecerint, necessitatis caussa in commune conferenda sunt. l. 2. ß. 2. de Grot. de jur b. e. p. 2, 2; 6. Sed & contributio cessat in necessariis vestibus, quas quis corpore suo gestat, & quæ ordinario cultui & amictui corporis serviunt; exceptis monilibus & aliis hujusmodi. Vinn. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 213. Cui plura de hoc argumento scire lubet, adire poterit Quintin. V Veitsii Tractatum de Avaria Belgicè scriptum. quamvis inde potiora excerpta, suisque locis inserta, & communi usui applicata sint. Ioh.
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Ioh. Loccenii Sent. t. 7. Of a lost ship, no account is taken of boats saved together with the merchandise. XXI. Finally, contribution ceases in provisions which someone has put on board the ship in order to consume them on the voyage; and which, if other provisions fail during the voyage, are to be contributed in common out of necessity. l. 2. § 2. de Grot. de jur b. e. p. 2, 2; 6. But contribution also ceases in necessary garments, which someone wears on his body, and which serve for the ordinary use and dress of the body; except for necklaces and other such things. Vinn. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. p. 213. Whoever wishes to know more on this subject may consult Quintin. V. Veitsii Tractatum de Avaria written in Dutch; although from it the more important extracts, inserted in their proper places, and applied to common use, have been made. Ioh.
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205 Ioh. Loccenii De Jure Maritimo et Navali Liber Tertius. Caput I. De Donatione mortis causa, Testamento, Legato nautico & Successione. I. De modis adquirendi, per transitionem. II. Quæ donatio mortis caussa. III. Quotuplex. IV. Conditiones mortis causa donati. V. VI. Testamenti nautici privilegium, probatio. VII. Legati nautici objectum & modus. IX. Conditiones ejus. IX. Num omnes implendæ sint. X. Successionis inter consortes navis privilegium jure Rom. I. Extremum hujus opusculi laborem Elector mihi concedet, ut, viâ maris apertâ & tutâ, qua datur, exponam quid à privatis mare navigantibus ac negociantibus vel proprietatis adquirendæ, vel mutuæ obligationis caussa exerceri & contrahi jura dictent ac permittant, Dominium
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205 Ioh. Loccenii On Maritime and Naval Law Book Three. Chapter I. On donation causa mortis, testament, naval legacy & succession. I. On the modes of acquiring, by transfer. II. What donation causa mortis is. III. How many kinds there are. IV. The conditions of a donation causa mortis. V. VI. The privilege of a naval testament, proof. VII. The object & mode of a naval legacy. IX. Its conditions. IX. Whether all must be fulfilled. X. The privilege of succession among shipmates according to Roman law. I. The final labor of this little work the Elector will grant me, so that, with the sea route opened & safe, wherever it is allowed, I may explain what, by those sailing the sea and trading privately, for the purpose either of acquiring property or of mutual obligation, the laws prescribe and permit to be done and contracted, Ownership
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rerum vel jure gentium vel civili quæri, recognoscimus ex principiis juris, & jure gentium inter cetera Occupatione, Accessione, Emtione, de quibus partim sup. ex occasione dicere occupavi lib. 1. c. 6. ß. 3. 8. & c. 7. ß. 6. 7. partim inf. hoc lib. ulterius dicam. Iure civili per præscriptionem, Donationem, hæreditatem. De Præscriptione, quatenus huc facit, lib. 1. c. 6. ß. 1. & cap. 7. ß. 6. c. 9. ß. 5. c. 10. ß. 8. actum est. De Donatione, præsertim quæ mortis caussa sit, Testamento, Legato, & Successione breviter hîc, quantum nostrum admittit institutum, & jura de illis singularia quædam tradunt, agemus. reliqua de modis adquirendi, ex communi jure, quæ hîc repeti nihil necesse est, recognosci possunt. II. Mortis causa donatio est, quæ fit in eventum mortis, vel, ut in jure describitur, quæ fit propter mortis suspicionem, cum quis ita donat, ut si quid humanitus ei contigisset, haberet is qui accipit. In summa mortis causa donatio est, cum magis se quis velit habere, si supervixerit, quam cum cui donat; magisque cum cui donat, si moriatur donans, quam heredem suum. ß. 1. Inst. de donat. l. 1. D. de mort. caus. donat. Quod Iurisconsultus ibidem illustrat exemplo Homeri ex Odyssæ
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Things are acquired either by the law of nations or by civil law; by the principles of law we recognize, and among the ways of acquisition under the law of nations are Occupation, Accession, and Purchase, concerning which I have partly already taken occasion to speak above, in lib. 1. c. 6. § 3. 8. and c. 7. § 6. 7., and partly below in this book I shall speak further. Under civil law, by prescription, Donation, and inheritance. Of Prescription, insofar as it is relevant here, I have already treated in lib. 1. c. 6. § 1. and cap. 7. § 6. c. 9. § 5. c. 10. § 8. Of Donation, especially that which is mortis causa, by Testament, Legacy, and Succession, we shall speak here briefly, as far as our plan permits, and as the laws concerning them set forth certain special points. The remaining modes of acquiring, derived from the common law, which there is no need to repeat here, may be consulted. II. A donation mortis causa is one which is made in view of death, or, as it is described in the law, one made because of the suspicion of death, when a person gives in such a way that, if anything human should befall him, the recipient would have it. In sum, a donation mortis causa is when one would rather have matters so if he survives than with the person to whom he gives; and rather, with the person to whom he gives, if the donor dies, than with his own heir. § 1. Inst. de donat. l. 1. D. de mort. caus. donat. The jurist illustrates this there by the example of Homer from the Odyssey
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 207 scæ lib. 17. de muneribus Menelai, quæ Telemachus donat Piræo. III. Hujus donationis tres species fecit Iulianus lib. xv 1 1. Digestorum: 1. cum quis nullo præsentis periculi metu conterritus, sed sola cogitatione mortalitatis donat. 2. Cum quis imminente periculo commotus ita donat, ut statim fiat accipientis. 3. Si quis periculo motus non sic dat, ut statim fiat accipientis, sed tunc demum cum mors fuerit insecuta. l. 2. D. de mort. c. don. Præterea mortis causa donare licet non tantum infirmæ valetudinis causa, sed periculietiam propinquæ mortis vel ab hoste vel prædonibus vel ab hominis potentia crudelitate aut odio, aut navigationis incundæ causa l. 3. eod. de qua hîc propriè sermo est. IV. Si quis ergo mortis causa donans, in itinere maritimo decesserit, huic donationi locus erit. Non enim videtur perfecta donatio mortis causa facta, antequam mors insequatur, ut dicitur in l. 32. D. h. tit. Si verò salvus ex navigatione domum redierit, donatio hæc revocatur. nisi cum ea conditione facta sit, ut nullo casu sit ejus repetitio l. 1 3. §. 1. infim. l. 3 5. §. 4. d. tit. sed hic causa donandi magis, quam mortis causa donatio, & instar donationis inter vivos est l. 27. d. tit. V. Te-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 207 scæ lib. 17. concerning the gifts of Menelaus, which Telemachus presents to Piraeus. III. Julian, in lib. xv 1 1 of the Digest, made three kinds of this donation: 1. when someone, not alarmed by any present fear of danger, but moved only by the thought of mortality, makes a gift. 2. When someone, moved by a threatening danger, gives in such a way that it immediately becomes the recipient’s. 3. If someone, moved by danger, does not give so that it immediately becomes the recipient’s, but only when death has in fact followed. l. 2. D. de mort. c. don. Moreover, it is permitted to make a gift in contemplation of death not only because of frail health, but also because of danger near death, whether from an enemy, or robbers, or from the power of a man’s cruelty or hatred, or because of the danger of a voyage, as in l. 3. eod., which is the proper subject here. IV. If therefore someone, making a gift in contemplation of death, dies on a sea voyage, this donation will stand. For a gift made in contemplation of death is not regarded as complete before death follows, as is said in l. 32. D. h. tit. But if he returns home safely from the voyage, this gift is revoked, unless it was made on the condition that in no event should it be reclaimed, l. 1 3. §. 1. infim. l. 3 5. §. 4. d. tit. But here the cause of giving is more in the nature of a donation than a donation mortis causa, and it is in the likeness of a donation between the living, l. 27. d. tit. V. Te-
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208 Ioh Loccenii V. Testamentum à nautis in navi quoque modo factum, ratum erit. illi enim jure militari testari possunt: cum nautæ in classibus sint loco militum l un. 5. 1. D. de bonor. possess. ex testam. mil. idcircò eodem hic privilegio gaudent, quo milites: & quæ de militari testamento jura tradunt, etiam huc commodè referri possunt. VI. Veruntamen ut constet de seria ac destinata voluntate testantis nautæ, sive in scriptura sive nudis verbis expressa, ea probabitur assertione hominum ad hoc ab ipso convocatorum arg. 5. 1. Inst. de testam mil. aut, si de illa dubitetur, jurata eorum assertione jure Sued. arg. c. 17. Iord. Doer. & Revis. LL. pro. Sued. sub Carolo 9. ad caput. 7. tit. LL. VII. Cum donatio mortis caussa legatis in testamento relictis quoad effectus connumeretur l. 4. Cod. de donat. causa mortis. æquè legatum subsistit, atque donatio mortis caussa, sive quis navem, sive fructus ejus, ut naulum leget l. 39. 5. 1. de legat. 1. aut vecturam l. 29. de har. pet. un. Cod. de rei ux. att. 5. 7. aut corpora nummorum aut rerum in arca l. 5 1. D. de legat. 1. Sive quodcumque aliud modò fiat in præsentia testium; atque sic non opus habet insinuatione d. l. 4. c. de don. c. m. VIII. Num lignis legatis etiam tigna & allex
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208 Ioh. Loccenii V. A testament made by sailors on board ship, in whatever way, shall also be valid. For they can make a testament under the military law, since sailors in fleets are in the place of soldiers, l. un. 5. 1. D. de bonor. possess. ex testam. mil. Therefore they enjoy here the same privilege as soldiers; and whatever laws are laid down concerning a military testament may also conveniently be referred here. VI. Nevertheless, in order that there may be certainty regarding the serious and deliberate intention of the testator-sailor, whether expressed in writing or in mere words, it shall be proved by the statement of the persons summoned by him for this purpose, arg. 5. 1. Inst. de testam mil. or, if there is doubt about it, by their sworn statement, jure Sued. arg. c. 17. Iord. Doer. & Revis. LL. pro. Sued. sub Carolo 9. ad caput. 7. tit. LL. VII. Since a donation mortis causa is counted, as to its effects, among legacies left in a testament l. 4. Cod. de donat. causa mortis, a legacy likewise subsists, as does a donation mortis causa, whether one bequeaths a ship, or its freight, as a naulum l. 39. 5. 1. de legat. 1. or a carriage l. 29. de har. pet. un. Cod. de rei ux. att. 5. 7. or coins or things in a chest l. 5 1. D. de legat. 1. Or whatever else is done in the presence of witnesses; and thus it does not require insinuation, d. l. 4. c. de don. c. m. VIII. Whether timber bequeathed also includes beams & allex
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 109 & asseres ad ædificandam navem paratæ continebuntur? Non videntur, nisi hoc voluisse testatorem constet. Lignum enim, propriè & strictè loquendo, comburendi causa comparatum est l. 5 5. de legat. 3. & 5. Sed si materia legata sit, quæ ad ædificationem navis necessaria est, aliud dicendum. Si vero materia legata, navis ex ea facta sit, non vindicabitur l. 88. 1. eod. Aliud enim est materia, aliud compositum aut constructum ex materia. IX. Naves etiam in instrumento fundi, vel instructo fundo legato continentur quatenus exportandorum fructuum causa comparatæ sunt l. 12. 1. ff. de instruct. vel instr. leg. Instrumento piscatorio legato non solum retia, nassas & fuscinas, sed navicellas quoque contineri Aristo ait, quæ piscium capiendorum causa comparatæ sunt l. 17. 1. de instr. vel instr. leg. non vero piscatores, ut olim d. l. cum liberi homines, aut servi, quales hodie, non sint in bonis nostris, ideoque alienari nequeant. conf, quoque l. 27. eod. X. Legati conditiones in futurum tempus proprie conferuntur. Nulla est proprie conditio quæ in præteritum aut præsens tempus confertur, ut: Si navis in portu stat. l. 10, 1. De condit. inst. nam si conditio vera non sit, non valet; si vera sit,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 109 & planks prepared for building a ship are to be included? They do not seem to be, unless it is clear that the testator so intended. For timber, properly and strictly speaking, is acquired for the purpose of being burned, l. 5 § 5. de legat. 3. & 5. But if the bequeathed material is such as is necessary for the construction of a ship, the matter is different. But if the bequeathed material has been made into a ship, it will not be recovered, l. 88. 1. eod. For one thing is material, another the composite thing or the structure made from the material. IX. Ships are also included in a legacy of the equipment of an estate, or of an equipped estate, in so far as they have been acquired for the purpose of carrying out produce l. 12. 1. ff. de instruct. vel instr. leg. In a legacy of fishing equipment, Aristo says that not only nets, baskets, and spears are included, but also little boats, which have been acquired for the purpose of catching fish l. 17. 1. de instr. vel instr. leg. but not the fishermen, since, as formerly in the said law with free men, or slaves, such as today they are not in our property, and therefore cannot be alienated. conf. also l. 27. eod. X. The conditions of legacies are properly referred to a future time. There is properly no condition which is referred to the past or present time, as: If the ship is standing in the harbor. l. 10, 1. De condit. inst. for if the condition is not true, it is invalid; if it is true,
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210 Ioh. Loccenii sit, statim tenet. quæ enim per rerum naturam certa sunt, non morantur obligationem, licet apud nos incerta sint. 6. Inst. de verb. oblig. l. 37. D. de reb. cred. Pone ita legatum esse: Sinavis ex Asia venerit, & ignorante testatore navis venerit ex Asia, testamenti facti tempore, pro impleta habebitur. l. 2. l. 10. 1. D. de cond. & demonstr. vid. & sup. lib. 2. c. 5. 9. in fin. XI. Non omnis conditio, quæ testamento aut legatis adjecta est, statim implenda est; nisi talis sit, quæ impleri debeat. Etiamsi enim suprema defuncti voluntas pro lege sit habenda, quatenus juri & bonis moribus est consentanea; non tamen inhumanæ aut inhonestæ conditioni parendum est l. 14. 15. D. de. cond. instit. E. c. quidam in suo testamento hæredem scripsit sub tali conditione, Si corpus ejus in mare abjiciat. quærebatur cum hæres institutus conditioni non parvisset, an expellendus esset ab hæreditate? Modestius respondit, laudandum esse magis, quam accusandum hæredem, qui corpus testatoris non in mare secundum ipsius voluntatem abjecit, sed memoriâ humanæ conditionis sepulturæ tradidit l. 27. D. de cond. inst. ubi sic notat Gothofredus: Conditio inhumana, quæ humanitati contraria est, tanquam
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210 Ioh. Loccenii exists, it takes effect at once. For those things which, by the nature of the matter, are certain, do not delay the obligation, although they are uncertain among us. 6. Inst. de verb. oblig. l. 37. D. de reb. cred. Suppose a legacy is as follows: If the ship shall have come from Asia, and, unbeknown to the testator, the ship shall have arrived from Asia at the time the testament was made, it will be regarded as fulfilled. l. 2. l. 10. 1. D. de cond. & demonstr. vid. & sup. lib. 2. c. 5. 9. in fin. XI. Not every condition which is added to a testament or to legacies must be fulfilled immediately; unless it be of such a kind that it ought to be fulfilled. For although the last will of the deceased is to be regarded as law, insofar as it agrees with law and good morals; nevertheless one must not comply with an inhuman or dishonorable condition. l. 14. 15. D. de. cond. instit. E. c. a certain man in his testament appointed an heir under this condition: If he should cast the testator’s body into the sea. The question arose, when the heir had been instituted and had not complied with the condition, whether he should be excluded from the inheritance? Modestinus replied that the heir ought rather to be praised than blamed, who did not cast the testator’s body into the sea in accordance with his will, but, mindful of human mortality, committed it to burial. l. 27. D. de cond. inst. where Gothofredus notes thus: An inhuman condition, which is contrary to humanity, as though
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 211 quam juri contraria spernitur. Aliud verò statuendum erit, si aliud more maritimo observetur, aut si navi in remoto loco versante, contagionis aut morbi periculum ex foetore cadaveris diu insepulti in navi jacentis metuendum sit. Ita Franciscus Dracus Anglus, qui totum orbem circumnavigarat, cum tandem in itinere Americano fatis concessisset, nautico funere in mare tormentis displosis demissus est eo fere loci ubi primum fatis monstratus secundis successibus inclarescere coepit; ut refert Camdenus in Historia Elisabethæ ad annum 1595. Plura de legatis nauticis per occasionem sup. lib. 1. cap. 2. ß. 6. 7. et cap. 7. ß. 13. 14. notata huc quoque referri possint. XII. Si quis navicularius sine testamento & liberis vel successoribus defunctus sit hæreditas ejus jure R. non ad fiscum, sed ad corpus naviculariorum, ex quo fatali sorte subtractus est, defertur. l. 1. Cod. de hæred. decor. quod est singulare juris Romani. Cetera communi juri successionis conveniunt. CAP.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 211 which is rejected as contrary to law. But another rule will have to be laid down, if something else is observed according to maritime custom, or if, the ship being in a remote place, the danger of contagion or disease is to be feared from the stench of a corpse lying long unburied in the ship. Thus Francis Drake, the Englishman who had sailed around the whole world, when at last, on an American voyage, he had yielded to fate, was lowered into the sea with a seaman’s funeral, guns being fired, at almost that very place where he had first been shown by fate to begin to grow famous through prosperous success; as Camden relates in the History of Elizabeth, for the year 1595. More about maritime legates, by the way, in the above lib. 1. cap. 2. §. 6. 7. and cap. 7. §. 13. 14. the notes made there may also be referred to this place. XII. If any shipowner has died without a will and without children or successors, his inheritance, by Roman law, does not go to the fiscus, but to the body of shipowners from which he was taken by fate. l. 1. Cod. de hæred. decor. which is a special feature of Roman law. The rest agrees with the common law of succession. CAP.
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Ioh. Loccenii CAP. II. De Contractibus nauticis, qui re fiunt. I. De Obligatione. II. Credens aut mutuò dans pecuniam in navim armandam aut reficiendam, aut jus tacitæ hypothecæ habeat. III. Credentis incibaria nautarum, & in merces sibi obligatas privilegium. IV. Mutuum naufragio aut incursu piratarum perditum restituendum. V. De diligentia in servanda navi aut scapha commodata. VI. Num casus fortuiti in re naviganti commodata sint præstandi. VII. Num in naufragio res commodata aut deposita præferenda sit propriæ. VIII. De deposito naufragii causa. I. A Donatione mortis causa, testamento & successione descendimus ad obligationem magistrorum navis & vectorum, vel ex contractu vel delicto. Sed de contractu prius, qui præcipuè vel revel consensu fit. re, ut mutuum, commodatum, depositum, pignus. Consensu, ut emtio ven-
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Ioh. Loccenii CHAP. II. On maritime contracts, which are made in fact. I. On obligation. II. Whether one who lends or advances money to equip or repair a ship has a tacit right of hypothec. III. The creditor’s privilege in the sailors’ provisions and in goods pledged to him. IV. A loan lost through shipwreck or an attack by pirates is to be restored. V. On the diligence required in preserving a borrowed ship or boat. VI. Whether fortuitous accidents are to be borne in the case of a thing lent for navigation. VII. Whether, in a shipwreck, a thing borrowed or deposited is to be preferred to one’s own. VIII. On a deposit made because of shipwreck. I. From a donation mortis causa, a testament and succession, we descend to the obligation of the masters of a ship and of the passengers, whether arising from contract or from delict. But first, about contract, which is chiefly made either by thing or by consent. By thing, as mutuum, commodatum, deposit, pledge. By consent, as sale-
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 213 venditio, locatio, conductio, societas, mandatum; velut ex elementis juris liquet. Sed hæc non ulterius, quam præsens materia postulat, quamque leges de eodem argumento suppeditant, tractabimus reliqua ex communis juris usu circa contractus petenda sunt. I I. Quamvis communis ferme sit opinio, eum qui in navem armandam aut reficiendam credidit aut mutuo dedit, jus tacitæ hypothecæ habere, tamen, ubi lex expressa deficit, haud temerè asserendum est. Nam l. 5. D. qui pot. in pign. & l. 34. D. de reb. auth. jud. poss. dant solum privilegium personale credentibus pecuniam in navem armandam aut reficiendam, quo præferuntur aliis creditoribus chirographariis. qua de re lib. 1. cap. 2. 5. 2. jam prolixius egi. Nec obstat l. 1. D. in quib. c. pign. t. non enim procedit argumentum à credito in restitutionem collapsarum ædium, in quo publici decoris & ornamenti urbis contemplatio versatur l. 2. C. de ædific. priv. ad creditum in refectionem navis. Sed aliud statuendum erit, si expressum & speciale pactum de hypotheca accesserit. l. 5. qui pot. in pign. l. 7. cod. eod. & fusè ac nervosè Vinnius ad Peckium in tit. de Exerc. act. pag. 100. & ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 233. 234. Iure tamen Hamburgensi datur
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. III. 213 sale, hire, carriage, partnership, mandate; as is clear, as it were, from the elements of law. But we shall treat these matters no further than the present subject requires, and as the laws on the same topic supply; the rest must be sought from the common use of law concerning contracts. II. Although the common opinion is almost that he who has lent or given money for equipping or repairing a ship has the right of tacit hypothec, yet, where express law is lacking, this must not be asserted rashly. For l. 5. D. qui pot. in pign. & l. 34. D. de reb. auth. jud. poss. grant only a personal privilege to those lending money for equipping or repairing a ship, by which they are preferred to other simple creditors. On this matter I have already spoken at greater length in book 1, chap. 2, § 2. Nor does l. 1. D. in quib. c. pign. t. stand in the way; for the argument does not proceed from a loan for the restoration of collapsed houses, in which the consideration of the public decoration and ornament of the city is involved, l. 2. C. de ædific. priv., to a loan for the repair of a ship. But another conclusion must be reached, if an express and special agreement concerning hypothec has been added. l. 5. qui pot. in pign. l. 7. cod. eod. & at length and powerfully Vinnius ad Peckium in tit. de Exerc. act. p. 100, and ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pp. 233, 234. Yet by Hamburg law there is granted
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214 Ioh. Loccenii datur in hoc casu beneficium tacitæ hypo- thecæ. part. 2. statut. Hamb. tit. 4. art. 14. O. 1. 5. a. 7. Sed hoc est juris mere posi- tivi. III. In cibaria nautarum credens, sine quibus navis salva pervenire non potest, etsi posterior, potior tamen est priori cre- ditore chirographario l. 6. D. qui pot. in fig. Item si quis in merces sibi obligatas credi- derit, vel ut salvæ fiant, vel ut naulum exsolvatur, potentior erit licet posterior sit creditor. Nam & ipsum naulum poten- tius est. d. l. 6. qui pot. ß. 1. IV. Si mutuum naufragio vel incursu piratarum perierit, nihilominus ad resti- tuendum debitor obligatus manet. Quam- vis enim casus fortuitos humanum consi- lium vel providere vel prohibere nequeat, l. 2. ß. 7. D. de administ. rer. ad civit. pert. c. 35. dejure adific. L. L. prov. Sued tamen hic mutuo accipiens tenetur: quia non idem individuum, sed idem genus aut tan- tundem restituere debet ß. 2. Inst. quib. mo- dis re contrah. oblig. Vid quoque c. 16. 17. 18. L L. Rhod Quæ de licenore nautico in jure habentur, haud incommodè huc quo- que referas de quo ob connexionem mate- riæ jam sup. lib. 2. c. 6. dixi. V. Qui utendam navem alienam acce- pit, exactam diligentiam ei custodiendæ præ-
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214 Ioh. Loccenii in this case the benefit of a tacit hypo- thec is granted. part. 2. statut. Hamb. tit. 4. art. 14. O. 1. 5. a. 7. But this is a matter of purely posi- tive law. III. In the case of a creditor for sailors’ provisions, without which the ship cannot safely arrive, even if he is later, he is nevertheless preferred to an earlier chirographary creditor. l. 6. D. qui pot. in fig. Likewise, if someone has lent on goods pledged to him, either in order that they may be preserved, or that the freight may be paid, he will be stronger in right, even though he be the later creditor. For the freight itself is also more powerful. d. l. 6. qui pot. ß. 1. IV. If a loan is lost through shipwreck or by an attack of pirates, nevertheless the debtor remains bound to make restitution. For although chance events human con- trivance can neither foresee nor prevent, l. 2. ß. 7. D. de administ. rer. ad civit. pert. c. 35. dejure adific. L. L. prov. Sued yet the borrower here is liable: because he must restore not the same individual thing, but the same kind or quantity. ß. 2. Inst. quib. modis re contrah. oblig. Vid. also c. 16. 17. 18. L. L. Rhod. What is set forth in law concerning the nautical lender, you may not inappropriately refer here also, concerning which, because of the connection of the matter, I already said above, lib. 2. c. 6. V. He who has taken another’s ship for use, must exercise exact diligence in guarding it
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 215 præstare tenerur nec satis est tantam diligentiam adhibuisse, quantam suis rebus adhibere solitus est, si alius eam diligentius poterat custodire. arg. ß.2. Inst. d. tit. quod de navi dictum, idem de scapha accipendum est. non minor enim diligentia in eo quod sequitur rem commodatam, quam in ipsa re principali præstanda est. l. 5, ß.9. D. commodati. VI. Cæterum quæstionis est, num casus fortuiti in re quacunque naviganti commodata sint præstandi? Sane jure R. non præstantur, cum illis resisti nequeat l. 18. D. commodati, ubi naufragium & piratarum incursus etiam inter istos casus referuntur. & quæ sine culpa alicujus accidunt, à nemine præstantur l.23. in fin. de reg. jur. Si verò alicujus culpa is casus intervenit, ex eo tenetur. Vt si alicui quædam pocula argentea ideò utenda dederit, quod is amicos ad coenam vel nuptias se domi invitaturum diceret; & ea peregrè secum portaverit, & naufragio vel prædonum incursu perdiderit, sine ulla dubitatione hunc casum præstare debet. d. ß.2. Inst quib. m. r. c. o. l. 18. D. commod. Quamvis jure Suecano c.20. ß.2. de jure adfice LL. civit. ex casu fortuito etiam extra culpam alicujus dato commodans teneri videatur: cum verba legis generaliter & indefinitè, Huru ehce
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 215 is bound to make good, nor is it sufficient to have exercised as much diligence as he is accustomed to use in his own affairs, if another could have guarded it more diligently. arg. §.2. Inst. d. tit. quod de navi dictum, idem de scapha accipiendum est. For no less diligence is required in that which follows a thing lent for use than in the thing itself which is the principal object to be cared for. l. 5, §.9. D. commodati. VI. Moreover, the question is whether cases of accidental loss are to be made good in any thing lent for use on a voyage? Certainly, by Roman law they are not to be made good, since they cannot be resisted; l. 18. D. commodati, where shipwreck and attacks of pirates are also included among such cases. And things which happen without anyone's fault are not made good by anyone; l.23. in fin. de reg. jur. But if such an event intervenes through someone's fault, he is liable for it. As if someone had given another certain silver cups to use because he said that he would invite his friends to dinner or to a wedding at his house; and he carried them with him abroad, and lost them through shipwreck or an attack by robbers, without any doubt he ought to make good this loss. d. §.2. Inst quib. m. r. c. o. l. 18. D. commod. Although by Swedish law c.20. §.2. de jure adfice LL. civit. even in a case of accident, when given without anyone's fault, the lender seems to be liable: since the words of the law are generally and indefinitely, Huru ehce
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216 Ioh. Loccenii thet hülst hända kan/ loquantur, & commo- dantis utilitatem hic respicere videantur. VII. Si quis in naufragio simul res suas & alienas sibi commodatas aut commen- datas vel depositas servare nequit, an res suas præferet alienis? quamvis alii hunc casum aliter decidant, vid. Pac. de Contra. 3. c. ult. n. 48. Affelman. Colleg. contract. Disp. 4. th 23. tamen hæc mihi simplicior & juri nostro convenientior decisio vide- tur: ut, cum posset quis res alienas salvas facere, suas prætulerit, etiam ex hoc damno fatali teneatur l.5. ß. 4. D. commod. non enim minorem salva fide alienis rebus quam suis diligentiam præstabit. sup. l. ca. ß. 5. l. 32. D. depos. Si vero & suas & alie- nas res naufragio vel alio casu amiserit, ad restitutionem vel rerum alienarum æstima- tionem præstandam non tenebitur c. 5. de jure merc. LL. Suetic. civit. c. 9. LL. prov. Si verò partem aliquam rerum propriarum naufragio liberavit, alienam verò perdide- rit, quid tunc statuendum erit? De hoc LL. V Visigothorum, quam me lectorem audire malo, à quibus lib. v. tit. 5. l. 5. hic casus pulere & ex æquitate deciditur. Ver- ba Legis Gothicæ hæc sunt: Qui commen- data vel commodata susceperit, & de ruina aut de incendio vel hostilitatis naufragio, seu quolibet simili casu, sua omnia liberaverit & aliena
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216 Ioh. Loccenii the best that can happen; they seem here to consider the advantage of the person who received the goods. VII. If someone in a shipwreck is unable at the same time to save both his own property and property of another that was loaned, entrusted, or deposited with him, should he prefer his own property to that of another? Although others decide this case differently, vid. Pac. de Contra. 3. c. ult. n. 48. Affelman. Colleg. contract. Disp. 4. th 23. still this seems to me the simpler and more suitable decision according to our law: that, if one could save the property of another, but preferred his own, he is even for this fatal loss liable, l.5. §. 4. D. commod. for he will not show less diligence in good faith toward the property of others than toward his own. sup. l. ca. §. 5. l. 32. D. depos. But if he lost both his own and another’s property in a shipwreck or some other accident, he will not be bound to make restitution or to pay the value of the property of another, c. 5. de jure merc. LL. Suetic. civit. c. 9. LL. prov. But if he saved some part of his own property from the shipwreck, but lost another’s, what then is to be determined? On this point I prefer to hear the Swedish laws, by which, in book 5, title 5, law 5, this case is beautifully and equitably decided. The words of the Gothic law are these: Whoever has received things entrusted or loaned, and from a collapse or from fire, or a shipwreck caused by enemies, or any similar event, has saved all his own things and
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 217 & aliena perdiderit, quod accepit sine aliqua excusatione cogatur exsolvere. Si verò par- tem aliquam de rebus propriis liberasse cog- noscitur, illi cujus res secum habuerat, juxta modum perditæ rei vel liberatæ restituat, qua- lem judicæ ratione deducta æstimaverit portio- nem. Si autem sua omnia perdidit, cum libe- raret aliena, & deliberatis, & de perditis rebus similis ratio deducatur, ut partem arbi- trio judicantis qui liberavit accipiat. Iustum est enim in simili casu, ut ille non damnum fo- lus excipiat, qui se gravibus objectit pericu- lis; & dum aliena minora conatur liberare, sua majora perdidisse cognoscitur. In hac au- temlege circa initium pro hostilitatis nau- fragio, emendandum esse hostilitate seu nausfragio, patet ex inscriptione legis: De rebus commendatis, & casu quocumque in nausfragium missis. Atque sic sensus erit evi- dentior. idem liquet ex ipso contextu. VIII. Si quis inficietur depositum nau- fragii causa, in duplum lege nautica Rhodiorum cap. 14. & jure Rom. tenetur. l. 1. §. 1. & 4. D. depositi, ubi Vlpianus hanc legis aut poenæ istius rationem adfert: Quod si quis depositum alicui dicta ne- cessitate extante commissum inficietur, me- rito in duplum teneatur, cum hic perfidia crimen crescat, quod publica utilitatis causa exercendum est. est enim inutile in causis hu- K immodi
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 217 and if he has lost another's property, let him be compelled without any excuse to make good what he received. But if it is recognized that he has freed some part of his own goods, let him restore to him whose property he had with him, according to the amount of the lost or saved property, such portion as the judge, after deducting what is reasonable, shall have assessed. But if he lost all his own goods while saving those of another, and of the goods that were saved and those that were lost, a similar proportion shall be deducted, so that he may receive, at the judge's discretion, a share. For it is just in such a case that the man who has exposed himself to grave perils should not alone bear the loss; and since, while trying to save the lesser goods of another, he is found to have lost his own greater ones. In this law, however, near the beginning, in place of "hostilitatis naufragio," it is clear from the heading of the law that it should be corrected to "hostilitate" or "naufragio": "Concerning things entrusted, and whatever in any accident were cast into shipwreck." And thus the meaning will be clearer; the same is evident from the text itself. VIII. If anyone shall deny a deposit made because of shipwreck, by the Rhodian maritime law, chap. 14, and by Roman law, he is liable in double, l. 1. §. 1. & 4. D. depositi, where Ulpian gives this reason for that law or penalty: For if anyone shall deny a deposit entrusted to him when a stated necessity existed, he is deservedly bound in double, since here the crime of perfidy increases, because it is to be exercised for the sake of public utility. For in cases of this kind it is useless in causes such as these
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CAP. III. De Pignore navis & rerum in navi. I. Navis oppignoratio pro debito. Ejus pri- vilegium. II. Num in pignore silva etiam materia navis comprehendatur. III. Translationem navis in alia loca ac ven- ditionem quibusdam Statutis immutare pignoris conditionem. IV. Magistrum navis jus tacitæ hypotheca in bonis vectorum pro naulo & contri- butione habere. V. Num creditor impetu aquarum pignus a- mittens jus crediti amitta. VI. Derate à creditore in flumine retenta, & vi fluminis ablata, quid jus decernat. VII. Cur conducta navis possit relocari alii, non verò pignori obligari. I. Re-
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CHAP. III. Of the Pledge of a Ship and of Things in the Ship. I. The pledging of a ship for debt. Its privi- lege. II. Whether the timber also from the forest for ship- building is included in the pledge. III. The transfer of a ship to other places and the sale, under certain statutes, altering the condition of the pledge. IV. Whether the master of the ship has the right of tacit hypothec in the goods of the passengers for freight and con- tribution. V. Whether a creditor, losing the pledge by the force of waters, loses the right of the debt. VI. Of a raft held by a creditor in a river, and carried away by the force of the river, what the law decrees. VII. Why a hired ship may be relet to another, but not bound in pledge. I. Re-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 219 I. R Estat de uno adhuc contractu qui refit, nimirum de Pignore navis ut agamus. quamvis jam de eo aliquid in superioribus ex occasione deliberavimus, tamen quæ adhuc addi possunt, in hoc caput rejicere visum est. Navis obligari pignori potest pro debito à domino navis, & quidem pluribus creditoribus in parem summam, modo non fiat in alicujus fraudem. Obligatur verò navis in fidem crediti, donec solvat debitor, aut eo moras studiosè nec tente, tandem ex lege pignus distrahatur, & inde satisfiat creditoribus. cujus elegans exemplum habemus apud Demosthenem in Exceptione contra Apaturium. In navi autem obligata, aut si pecunia in eam emendam, fabricandam, armandam aut reficiendam credita sit, posterior creditor priori in jure R. potior habetur. l. 5. D. qui pot. in pign. quia illius pecunia salvam fecit totius pignoris causam l. 6. eod. Idem obtinet, si quis in cibaria nautarum aut merces sibi obligatas crediderit, vel ut naulum exsolvatur. d. l. 6. ß. 1. vid. ex sup. lib. 1. c. 2. ß. 2. II. Num, si quis caverit, ut silva sibi pignori esset, etiam navis ex ea materia sit pignori? Negant Cassius & Paulus in l. 18. ß. 3. D. de pigner. act nisi hoc expresse sit adjectum. aliud enim est materia. K 2 aliud
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 219 I. Let us now deal with one remaining contract, namely the pledge of a ship. Although we have already discussed something about it above on occasion, nevertheless I have thought it best to place here whatever else may be added on this topic. A ship may be pledged for a debt owed by the owner of the ship, and indeed to several creditors in equal shares, provided it is not done to defraud anyone. The ship is bound in security for the debt until the debtor pays, or, if he deliberately and persistently delays, the pledge is at last sold according to law, and the creditors are thereby satisfied. We have an elegant example of this in Demosthenes, in the Exception against Apaturius. But in the case of a pledged ship, or if money has been lent for buying, building, fitting out, or repairing it, the later creditor is preferred over the earlier one in Roman law, l. 5. D. qui pot. in pign., because his money preserved the whole basis of the pledge, l. 6. eod. The same applies if someone has advanced money for sailors’ provisions, or for goods pledged to him, or so that the freight may be paid, d. l. 6. § 1. see above, lib. 1. c. 2. § 2. II. If someone has taken security that a forest should be pledged to him, is the ship made from that timber also pledged? Cassius and Paulus deny it in l. 18. § 3. D. de pigner. act., unless this has been expressly added. For timber is one thing, and the ship made from it another.
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220 Ioh. Loccenii aliud corpus ex materia confectum. ideo nominatim in dando pignore adjiciendum; queque ex silvanata vel facta sint. III. Nonnullorum populorum legibus, si quis navem quam pignori obligaras, ad alia loca navigando transluterit & vendiderit, jus pignoris solvitur. Si vero civis qui eam oppignoravit, ad urbem, in qua habitat, reducat, jus pignoris integrum manet. Ita jure Lubec. 3. 4. 6. Stralsundensium & vicinorum moribus, qui eo jure utuntur, receptum est. Quamvis autem hoc pugnare videatur contra regulam juris, qua quod nostrum est, sine facto nostro ad alium transferri nequit, & iniqum reputari possit, hujusmodi navium translatione jus pignoris creditori adimi; tamen hoc in favorem commerciorum, & illorum qui vel merces in naves transferunt, vel iis ministram operam præbent, introductum est: quorum interest hujusmodi pignorum persecutionibusnon retardari impedirique navium cursum. Sed horum jus est integrum, quando navis domum revertitur, & in pristinam pignoris caussam redit. Mev. ad d. loc. jur. Lub. IV. Res vectorum in navi sunt quasi jure taciti pignoris & retentionis obligatæ magistro navis pro naulo, contributione & aliis necessariis expensis, donec quod debent,
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220 Ioh. Loccenii another body made from material. Therefore it must be expressly added in the granting of a pledge whether they be made from wood or fabricated. III. By the laws of certain peoples, if someone, having bound a ship as a pledge, should carry it away by sailing to other places and sell it, the right of pledge is extinguished. But if the citizen who pledged it brings it back to the city in which he lives, the right of pledge remains intact. Thus it is received under the law of Lübeck, 3. 4. 6., and among the customs of the people of Stralsund and their neighbors, who use that law. Although, however, this may seem to conflict with the rule of law, according to which what is ours cannot be transferred to another without our act, and it might be regarded as unjust that, by such a transfer of ships, the creditor’s right of pledge is taken away; nevertheless this was introduced in favor of commerce, and of those who either transfer goods into ships, or provide service aboard them: whose interest it is not to be delayed or hindered by such pursuits of pledges and the movement of ships. But their right is intact when the ship returns home, and reverts to its original cause of pledge. Mev. ad d. loc. jur. Lub. IV. The goods of passengers in a ship are as if by the right of tacit pledge and retention bound to the master of the ship for freight, contribution, and other necessary expenses, until what they owe,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 221 bent, solvant artic. 59 jur. maritim. V Visbyens. arg. l. 5. D. ad exhib. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. pag. 204. 232. nisi naulum à vectoribus sit prænumeratum; ut Ionas propheta faciebat Ion. c. 1. v. 3. V. Si creditor pignus & simul rem suam amiserit impetu aquarum, ad restitutionem pignoris non tenetur; sed hic damnum damno compensatur: quod præsumitur absque culpa ejus accidisse. Si vero pignus impetu aquarum perdiderit, re propria salva; ad pignoris æstimationem præstandam tenetur. arg. c. 10. de jur. mercand. LL. prov. Sued. c. 6. eod. LL. municip. quia lex hic præsumit, creditorem fuisse negligentiem in re aliena quam sua custodienda: quod ex eventu non obscurum est. vid. sup. h. lib. c. 2. ß. 7. conferatur quoque Coppen obs. Pract. lib. 1. c. 21. n. 10. VI. Crediderat civis domino ratis aut navigii pecuniam, quæ cum ad diem non solveretur, ratem in flumine sua auctori. tate detinuit. postea flumen crevit & ratem abstulit; quæritur, cujus periculo vel damno? Si creditor domino ratis invito ratem detinuisset, creditoris periculo ratem fore Paulus respondit. Sed si debitor sua voluntate concessisset, ut retineret, culpam duntaxat creditori præstandam, non vim majorem. l. 30. D. de pignor. act. K 3 Hoc
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On Maritime Law, Book III, 221 …then let them pay; article 59 of the maritime law of Visby. See the argument from l. 5, D. ad exhib. Vinn. in Peck. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. p. 204, 232, unless the freight has been prepaid by the passengers; as the prophet Jonah did, Jonah 1:3. V. If a creditor has lost both the pledge and at the same time his own goods by the force of the waters, he is not bound to restore the pledge; but here loss is compensated by loss: for it is presumed to have occurred without his fault. But if he has lost the pledge by the force of the waters, while his own property remained safe, he is bound to pay the value of the pledge. Arg. c. 10, de jur. mercand. LL. prov. Sued. c. 6, eod. LL. municip. because the law here presumes that the creditor was negligent in guarding another’s property rather than his own: which is not obscure from the event. See above, this book, c. 2, § 7; compare also Coppen obs. Pract. lib. 1, c. 21, n. 10. VI. A citizen had lent money to the owner of a raft or vessel, which, when it was not paid on the due day, he detained in the river by his own authority. Later the river rose and carried off the raft; the question is, at whose risk or loss? If the creditor had detained the raft against the owner’s will, Paulus replied that the raft would be at the creditor’s risk. But if the debtor had voluntarily granted that he might retain it, only fault, not vis major, is to be borne by the creditor. l. 30, D. de pignor. act. K 3 This
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222 Ioh. Loccenii Hoc enim generale est, ut vis major non præstetur, nisi alicujus culpa eam præcesserit. Gail. lib. 2. obs. 21. n. 3. Rittershus. ad 1. Contract. p. 109. VII. Nonnullorum statutis cautum est, ut navis ad certum tempus conducta, re- locari alii ad dictum tempus possit, non vero oppignorari. Quod æquam habet rationem. quia conducta res est aliena, non propria conductoris, itaque aliis pignori obligari invito domino, qui directum in ea dominium habet, non potest. l. 6. Cod. si al. res pig. d. 5. l. 20. D. de pign. act. Sed quam conduxit quis navem, aliifruendam ad dictum diem tacito consensu domini locare potest, nisi aliud convenerit l. 6. Cod. de loc. cond. Addi etiam hæc ratio possit, ne promiscua & frequenti navium sub pignoris nexu obligatione liber cursus commerciorum & navium sistatur. de quo sup. h. cap. ß. 3. CAP. IV. De Repressaliis, ut vocant, & Arrestationibus navium. I. Repressalias etiam pignorationes esse. II. Vnde dicantur Repressalia, & quid sint. III. De
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222 Ioh. Loccenii For this is a general principle, that force majeure is not to be granted unless some fault has preceded it. Gail. lib. 2. obs. 21. n. 3. Rittershus. ad 1. Contract. p. 109. VII. In the statutes of some there is a provision that a ship hired for a certain time may be re-let to another for the said period, but may not be pledged. And this has a sound reason; because a hired thing is another’s property, not the hirer’s own, and thus it cannot be bound by pledge to others against the will of the owner, who has the direct ownership in it. l. 6. Cod. si al. res pig. d. 5. l. 20. D. de pign. act. But one who has hired a ship may, with the owner’s tacit consent, let it out for the enjoyment of another for the said day, unless something else has been agreed. l. 6. Cod. de loc. cond. This reason may also be added, that lest the free course of commerce and ships be halted by the promiscuous and frequent binding of ships under the burden of a pledge. on which see above, this chapter §. 3. CAP. IV. On Reprisals, as they are called, and the Arresting of ships. I. Reprisals are also pledges. II. Whence Reprisals are so called, and what they are. III. Of
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 223 III. De causis repressaliarum & arrestationum navium. IV. Cautio magistratus in illis imperandis. V. Relaxationes & exemtiones ab illis. VI. Si qui privati vetita advexerint hosti, aut aliud quid illicitum commiserint adversus Principes, num id respub. alii- que cives luere debeant. VII. Ministros mercatorum non detinendos esse pro debito dominorum. VIII. Nec subditos aut cives pro debito dominorum, aut civitatis; nisi in certis casibus. IX. Quæ moderatio in repræsaliis & arrestis navium aut bonorum servanda sit. & de restitutione damni dati. I. CVm Repressaliæ & Arrestationes navium sint etiam quædam pignorationes, ut vocant, rerum & personarum, quando res aut persona unius pro alia præhenditur & detinetur, ut notant Gail obs. 2. de pignorat. n. 1. & 7. & Faber in Reg. Iur. 176. pag. m. 7 1 1. de iisdem post pignora navium hoc capite agemus. II. Repressalias, vel ut alii scribunt, Repræsalias, aliàs Pressalias, ut barbarum quidem, sed nunc usu receptum vocabulum, derivant nonnulli à Gallico reprise aut reprendre, à reprehensione aut reprehensione aut K 4. pre
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De Iure Maritimo, Book III. 223 III. Of the causes of reprisals and the arrest of ships. IV. The magistrate’s caution in ordering them. V. Remissions and exemptions from them. VI. Whether private persons who have unlawfully conveyed prohibited goods to an enemy, or committed some other unlawful act against princes, ought on that account the commonwealth and other citizens to suffer the penalty. VII. That the servants of merchants are not to be detained for the debts of their masters. VIII. Nor subjects or citizens for the debts of their masters, or of the city; except in certain cases. IX. What moderation is to be observed in reprisals and in the arrest of ships or goods, and concerning the restitution of damage done. I. Since reprisals and the arrest of ships are also a kind of pledging, as it is called, of things and persons, when the thing or person of one is seized and detained for another, as Gail notes, obs. 2, de pignorat. no. 1 and 7, and Faber in Reg. Iur. 176, p. 711, we shall speak of them together with pledges of ships in this chapter. II. Reprisals, or, as others write, Repræsalias, otherwise Pressalias, a barbarous term indeed, but now accepted by usage, some derive from the French reprise or reprendre, from reprehension or reprehension or K 4. pre
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224 Ioh. Loccenii prehendere; alii à Latino reprimere detortumvolunt; quidam ab Italico prisa, quod capturam notat, deducunt. Sed res eodem ferè recidit. Nihil enim aliud est, quam jus præhendendi ac detinendi bona aut corpora subditorum, etiam exterorum, in compensationem injuriæ & læsionis, quæ in publicum detrimentum præcipuè vergit. De altera ista dictione Arrestorum & Arrestationum alibi egi, nimirum in Synopsi juris; quæ hîc non repeto. Quamvis autem differentiæ quædam dari possint inter repræsalias, pignorationes & arrestationes, uti observavit Gail cap. 1. de pignorat. n. 4. 5. 6. & alibi, tamen etiam promiscuè accipi solent, & inter se similitudinem quandam habent, ut idem Gail notat in cap. 2. de Arrestis imperii n. 1. 2. 3. c 9. n. 10. III. Variæ solent esse caussæ repressaliarum & arrestationis navium, inprimis tamen si jus aut debitum ab aliis non reddatur. Si naves non præstent, aut dolosè occultent ac supprimant, quæ jure gentium, portus, ac portorii præstari debent: si domini navium aut vectores illicita bona advehant: si delictum committant in alieno loco: si hostili animo veniant aut jure metuantur ut hostes, hostive re, operâ, consilio faveant; aut deviis itineribus ac
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224 Ioh. Loccenii to seize; some think it is derived by corruption from the Latin reprimere; others derive it from the Italian presa, which denotes a capture. But the matter comes to nearly the same thing. For it is nothing other than the right of seizing and detaining the goods or bodies of subjects, even of foreigners, in compensation for an injury and wrong, which chiefly turns to the detriment of the public. I have elsewhere treated of the other term, Arrests and Arrestations, namely in the Synopsis of Law; I do not repeat it here. Although certain differences may be found between reprisal, pignoration, and arrestation, as Gail observed, cap. 1 de pignorat. n. 4, 5, 6, and elsewhere, nevertheless they are also commonly taken indiscriminately, and they bear a certain similarity to one another, as the same Gail notes in cap. 2 de Arrestis imperii n. 1, 2, 3, c. 9, n. 10. III. The causes of reprisals and the arrest of ships are usually various, but especially if a right or debt is not restored by others. If ships do not furnish, or deceitfully conceal and suppress, what by the law of nations, by port dues, and by customs duty ought to be furnished; if the owners of ships or the carriers bring in unlawful goods; if they commit a crime in another’s place; if they come with hostile intent or are justly feared as enemies, or lend aid to the enemy by goods, labor, or counsel; or by devious routes and
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 225 ac littoribus clam & animo explorandi insidiandique perreptent alienum solum & æquor. Ob has & similes causas jus præhendendi & detinendi etiam alienas naves aut personas vetus est, non naturâ quidem sed consuetudine gentium introductum. Aristoteles 2. Oeconom. facit mentionem decreti Carthaginiensium ad prehendendas exterorum naves, si quis jus prehendendi haberet. Aristodemus Tarquiniorum heres retinuit Cumis naves Romanorum frumento onustas pro bonis Tarquiniorum. vid. Liv. lib. 2. Grot. lib. 3. de jur. bell. e. p. c. 1. n. 5. c. 2. ß. 4. 5. l. 8. 6. de Navicular. Mynsing. cent. 6. obs. 1. Gail. c. 2. 3. seqq. de pignorat. Paschals Legat. c 21. & 29. IV. Cum autem dictæ represaliæ & detentiones sint species quædam violentæ executionis, cavebit Magistratus, ne, ubi juris & judicum copia haberi potest, temerè permittat apprehendi & sisti alienas naves ac mercatores; certè non injustè sisti aut detineri. aut si justè quidem, ne cuiquam hoc propriâ authoritate facere sit integrum, nisi causa cognita, diplomate à Principe impetrato, aut aliàs approbante magistratu: ne, cum potuerit ille ordinario jure suum consequi, vitio & culpâ suâ majoris tumultus faciendi, animorum alie- natio- K 5
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 225 and along the shores, they may secretly and with the purpose of spying and lying in wait range over another’s land and sea. For these and similar causes, the right of seizing and detaining even other men’s ships or persons is ancient, introduced not indeed by nature but by the custom of nations. Aristotle, Oeconom. 2, mentions the decree of the Carthaginians for seizing the ships of foreigners, if anyone should have the right of seizure. Aristodemus, heir of the Tarquins, detained at Cumae the ships of the Romans, laden with grain, as goods of the Tarquins. vid. Liv. lib. 2. Grot. lib. 3. de jur. bell. e. p. c. 1. n. 5. c. 2. ß. 4. 5. l. 8. 6. de Navicular. Mynsing. cent. 6. obs. 1. Gail. c. 2. 3. seqq. de pignorat. Paschals Legat. c 21. & 29. IV. But since the said reprisals and detentions are a certain kind of violent execution, the magistrate will take care that, where a supply of law and judges can be had, he does not rashly allow foreign ships and merchants to be apprehended and arrested; certainly not to be stopped or detained unjustly. Or if indeed justly, then let it not be lawful for anyone to do this on his own authority, unless the matter having been examined, a diploma having been obtained from the Prince, or otherwise approved by the magistrate: lest, when that man could have obtained his own by ordinary law, through his own fault and blame of causing greater tumult, alienation of minds K 5
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226 Ioh. Loccenii nationis, retorsionis, & tandem belli inter finitimos aut remotiores incundi ansam præbeat; aureoque forte piscetur hamo, cujus jactura commodo piscationis longè major sit. Ita Tullus apud Livium lib.1. mercatu frequenti negotiatores Romano à Sabinis comprehensos querebatur. Sabini suos prius in lucum confugisse ac Romæ retentos. Hæ caussæ belli ferebantur. vide quoque Pet. Fab. in Reg. Iur. 176. Hinc Principes & Respublicæ passim repressalias admitti noluerunt. Zeno Imp. & Iustinianus aliquot constitutionibus eas vetuerunt l.111. Cod. ut nullus ex vican. Nov. 52. &. Theodericus rex Gothorum apud Cassiodorum ep. 10. lib.4. Var. Nostra ætate in Induciis Suco-Polonicis art. 18. Nulla repressaliæ aut arresta tam terra quam mari ratione cujuscunque injuriæ, nisi justitia pluribus vicibus repetita non administretur, admittantur. In foedere commerciorum inter Gallos & Belgas anno 1596. Repressaliæ nulla imposterum concedantur, sed ordinaria juris via quisque suum repetat. V. Si quis ergo suspectus ad judicium provocet, aut arresto detentus sponte satisfacere, aut idoneè cavere per se vel alios paratus sit, ab arresto liberabitur. Statutis Gedanensibus arrestum navis à judice rite con-
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226 Ioh. Loccenii nationis, retorsionis, and at length may provide occasion for war to be undertaken between neighbors or more distant peoples; and with a golden hook perhaps it may fish, whose loss would be far greater than the advantage of the fishing. Thus Tullus, in Livy, book 1, complained that Roman traders were seized by the Sabines in a crowded market. The Sabines said that their own men had first taken refuge in the grove and been detained at Rome. These were the causes of the war, as related. See also Pet. Fab. in Reg. Iur. 176. Hence princes and commonwealths have everywhere refused to allow reprisals. Emperor Zeno and Justinian, by several constitutions, forbade them, l.111. Cod. ut nullus ex vican. Nov. 52. And Theoderic, king of the Goths, in Cassiodorus, ep. 10, lib. 4, Var. In our own time, in the Suco-Polish Truces, art. 18: No reprisals or arrests, by land or by sea, on account of any injury whatsoever, shall be permitted unless justice has been sought repeatedly and not administered. In the treaty of commerce between the French and the Belgians in the year 1596: Let no reprisals hereafter be granted, but let everyone seek his own by the ordinary course of law. V. If therefore anyone suspected appeals to trial, or, being detained by arrest, is ready either voluntarily to make satisfaction or to furnish adequate security, either by himself or by others, he shall be released from arrest. In the statutes of Gdańsk, the arrest of a ship by the judge duly con-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 227 convento factum, ad oppignorationem bo- norum aut aliam idoneam cautionem re- laxari potest, etiam invito eo qui arrestum impetraverat. part. 2. c. 3. a. 8. Sed & per- sonæ privilegio, foedere, pactisve exemtæ arrestis, non sunt detinendæ, aut pignora- tione, ut vocant, vel repressaliis oneran- dæ: ne directè contra immunitatis & pa- ctorum leges fiat. vid. Demosth. orat. de foed. Alex. & pacta pac. inter Reg. Sued. & Dan. art. 4. & seqq. Nec navis tendens ad nundinas in portu detinenda est, absque quo ad nundinas pervenire non potest. Peck. de jure sist. c. 10. n. 4. Vt enim tem- pore nundinarum in loco earum vetitum est arrestum, ita & in illo, sine quo ad mer- catum deveniri nequit. Nicol. Everard. con- sil. 21. VI. Quid verò si privati mercatores advehant commeatum aut pulverem tor- mentarium hosti, aut alii privati cives in alienam Remp. quid committant ac de- linquant, num fas est eo nomine deti- neri non solum ipsorum authorum, sed & aliorum naves, si illi forte elapsi sint, donec id vel illi luant, vel communitas aut rector eorum? Civitas aut rectores ejus non tenentur ex subditi facto illicito aut delicto, nisi sciverint, & cum prohibendi emendandique facultatem haberent, non pro-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 227 in accordance with the agreement, it may be released for pledging of goods or other suitable security, even against the will of the one who obtained the arrest. part. 2. c. 3. a. 8. But persons exempt by privilege, treaty, or pact are not to be detained, or burdened with pledging, as it is called, or reprisals: lest anything be done directly against the laws of immunity and of pacts. see Demosth. orat. de foed. Alex. & pacta pac. inter Reg. Sued. & Dan. art. 4. & seqq. Nor is a ship bound for the fair to be detained in the harbor, without which it cannot reach the fair. Peck. de jure sist. c. 10. n. 4. For just as during the time of the fair arrest is forbidden in the place of the fair, so also in that place without which the market cannot be reached. Nicol. Everard. consil. 21. VI. But what if private merchants bring provisions or gunpowder to the enemy, or if other private citizens commit anything and offend in a foreign commonwealth: is it lawful on that account to detain not only the ships of the actual offenders, but also those of others, if those offenders have escaped, until either they themselves make amends, or their community or ruler does? A city or its rulers are not liable for the unlawful act or offense of a subject, unless they knew of it, and, having the power to prevent and remedy it, did not
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228 Ioh. Loccenii. prohibuerint & emendarint; aut interpellati pro merito non puniverint nocentem, vel arbitrio interpellantium permiserint. Grot. lib. 2. de jure b. e. p. c. 21. ß. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. 17. 18. Alb. Gentil. de jure belli lib. 1. c. 21. Rex Galliæ (apud Guicciardinum lib. 5.) expostulat cum Venetis, emtum esse Venetiis commeatum & pulverem tormentarium, advectumque hostibus suis. Responderunt Veneti, in sua civitate nemini unquam interdictum esse negotiari, & factum illud privatos mercatores autores habere. Inter capita legationis Anglicæ ad Fridericum 2. Regem Daniæ anno 1588. & hoc fuit: Ne arrestationes navium ob privatorum delicta in freto Sundensi concederentur. apud Camdenum. p. 3. Hist. Elisab. pag. 540. Et Dani anno 1602. per suos in Britanniam legatos graviter de piratis Anglis questi & obtestati sunt: quamvis piratica insolentia bello flagrante comprimi non posset, supplicii tamen asperitate coercendam esse, alioquin ad injurias & damna resarcienda arrestationes permittendas: quia Regum inprimis intersit, ne subditi quid detrimenti capiant. apud camden. p. 4. pag. 842. VII. Sed nec ministri mercatorum qui una navigant ad expediundum negotia domini-
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228 Ioh. Loccenii. have prohibited and made good; or, when appealed to, have not punished the guilty according to their deserts, or have allowed it at the discretion of those appealing. Grot. lib. 2. de jure b. e. p. c. 21. §§. 2. 3. 4. 7. 8. 17. 18. Alb. Gentil. de jure belli lib. 1. c. 21. The King of France (in Guicciardini lib. 5.) complains to the Venetians that provisions and gunpowder had been bought in Venice and carried to his enemies. The Venetians replied that in their city it had never been forbidden for anyone to trade, and that the deed had private merchants as its authors. Among the articles of the English embassy to Frederick II, King of Denmark, in the year 1588, this also was one: That arrests of ships on account of private persons’ offenses in the Sound should not be allowed. apud Camdenum. p. 3. Hist. Elisab. pag. 540. And the Danes in the year 1602, through their ambassadors to Britain, complained bitterly and protested against the English pirates: although such piratical insolence, while war was raging, could not be suppressed, it was nevertheless to be restrained by the severity of punishment, otherwise arrests were to be permitted in order to recover injuries and losses: because it is especially in the interest of kings that their subjects suffer no harm. apud Camden. p. 4. pag. 842. VII. But neither are the agents of merchants who sail together to carry out the business of their mas-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 229 dominica, pro debitis suorum domino- rum arresto detineri possunt, etiamsi do- mini solutionem in loco contractus pro- miserint. ministri enim non suo nomine contraxerunt; & æquitati naturali non convenit, ut pro alienis debitis alii mo- lestentur l. um. c. ut nullus ex vican. Carp[an] Zov. jur. for. 1, 30, 1 1. nisi aliud convenerit, aut contrahens fidem ministri, non domini secutus sit; aut nisi Factores aut ministri pro re & in nomen præponentium con- traxerint l. 1. l. 7. D. de instit. act. Peck. de Arrest. c. 4. n. 12. Mev. de Arrest. c. 8. n. 76. VIII. Subditi quoque & cives eorum- que naves & in iis merces detineri sistique pro debitis dominorum vel civitatis in qua degunt, per eandem rationem neque- unt. Inter privilegia mercatoribus Hansæ quondam à Regibus Angliæ data & hoc fuit: Mercatorem qui deliquisset, puniendum, nec cæteros innocentes propter aliena debita plettendos. Veluti enim quod uni- versitati debetur, singulis non debetur, ita quod universitas debet, singuli non debent l. 27. de reb. cred. l. 7. ß. 1. quod cu- jusque univ. nom. Iure tamen gentium observatur aliud, si subditi semetipsos si- gillatim obligarint: aut singularis præ- stationis nomine suo domino obstricti sint aut
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 229 can be detained by arrest for the debts of their masters, even if the masters have promised payment at the place of contract. For servants have not contracted in their own name; and natural equity does not allow that others should be troubled for the debts of strangers. l. ult. c. ut nullus ex vican. Carp[an] Zov. jur. for. 1, 30, 11. unless something else has been agreed, or the contracting party has followed the credit of the servant, not of the master; or unless factors or servants have contracted in the matter and in the name of those employing them. l. 1. l. 7. D. de instit. act. Peck. de Arrest. c. 4. n. 12. Mev. de Arrest. c. 8. n. 76. VIII. Subjects also, and citizens, and their ships and the goods in them, cannot by the same reasoning be detained and held for the debts of the masters or of the city in which they dwell. Among the privileges formerly granted by the Kings of England to the merchants of the Hanse this also was included: that the merchant who had offended was to be punished, and not the other innocent men to be vexed on account of another's debts. For as what is owed to a universitas is not owed to individuals, so what a universitas owes is not owed by individuals. l. 27. de reb. cred. l. 7. ß. 1. quod cujusque univ. nom. Yet by the law of nations another rule is observed, if the subjects have bound themselves severally: or if they are personally bound to their lord under the name of a singular prestation, or
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230 Ioh. Loccenii. aut si alieno debito jus non reddendo se quoque obstrinxerint. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. lib. 3. c. 2. ß. 2. 3. 4. Gail de arrest. imp. c. 9. Peck. de jure sist. c. 4. n. 17. Mev. de Arrest. c. 8. n. 190. et seqq. IX. In pignorationibus autem & arrestis navium, bonorum & corporum ea moderatio partim jure gentium, partim civili servanda est, ut bona potius quam homines detineantur; ut legatis parcatur, imbelli sexui, literatis, & aliis speciali lege exemtis ut prehensa loci magistratui aut judici consignata tradantur, ne furtum aut fraus in illis committatur: ut satisfactione justa illis quorum interest, præstita suum domini recipiant. Ob repressalias vero aut arrestum injustè alicujus navi, mercibus aut corpori impositum, damnum cum omni causa & ex. pensis resarcietur. arg. l. 9. ß. 3. quod met. caus. Grot. d. loc. ß. 7. Heig. part. 1. qu. 12. per tot. impr. n. 60. 61. et seqq. Gail. de Arrest. imp. c. 13. CAP.
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230 Ioh. Loccenii. or if, by not restoring a debt owed to another, they have also bound themselves. Grot. de jur. b. e. p. lib. 3. c. 2. § 2. 3. 4. Gail de arrest. imp. c. 9. Peck. de jure sist. c. 4. n. 17. Mev. de Arrest. c. 8. n. 190. et seqq. IX. But in cases of distress and arrest of ships, goods, and bodies, that moderation is to be observed, partly by the law of nations, partly by civil law, namely, that goods rather than men be detained; that ambassadors be spared, the female sex, scholars, and others exempted by special law; that what has been seized be delivered to the magistrate of the place or to the judge, lest theft or fraud be committed in regard to it; and that, after just satisfaction has been given to those whose interest it is, their owners receive back their own. But on account of reprisals or an arrest unjustly imposed on someone’s ship, merchandise, or person, the damage, with all causes and ex- penses, shall be made good. arg. l. 9. § 3. quod met. caus. Grot. d. loc. § 7. Heig. part. 1. qu. 12. per tot. impr. n. 60. 61. et seqq. Gail. de Arrest. imp. c. 13. CAP.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 231 CAP. V. De Contractibus nauticis qui consensu fiunt. I. Domus mari aut flumini juncta vendita cum suo jure & onere transit ad em- torem. II. Alluvionis & inundationis periculum non præstat venditor. III. Navium venditio usui publico & civi- um magis quam peregrinorum accom- modata. Ibidem de jure Retractus, ex occasione. IV. Rebus è navi venditis quid loco tra- ditionis sit. V. Multa rescindentis contractum locatio- nis conductionis navis. VI. Navi pro numero amphorarum vel per aversionem conducta, quantum vectura nomine debeatur. VII. Quando conductor navis, quando lo- cator obligetur ex mora. VIII. Promissio sub certa poena de mercibus alio devehendis quando exceptionem admittat quatenus ob navem perditam teneatur aut non teneatur locator. IX. Nave aut mercibus deperditis numin- egra
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On Maritime Law, Book III. 231 Chapter V. On nautical contracts made by consent. I. A house joined to the sea or a river, when sold, passes to the buyer with its rights and burdens. II. The seller does not warrant against the risk of alluvion and inundation. III. The sale of ships is adapted more to public use and to citizens than to foreigners. Likewise, on the right of preemption, by occasion. IV. In things sold from a ship, what serves in place of delivery. V. The penalty rescinding the contract of hiring and letting of a ship. VI. When a ship is hired by the number of amphorae or by aversion, how much is due by way of freight. VII. When the hirer of the ship, and when the lessor, is bound by delay. VIII. A promise under a fixed penalty, concerning goods to be carried elsewhere, when it admits an exception, and to what extent the lessor is bound or not bound on account of a lost ship. IX. If the ship or the goods are lost, numin-egra
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232 Ioh. Loccenii tegræ vecturæ merces debeatur magistro navis. X. Pro infante, quem semina in navi pe- perit, nihil vectura nomine deberi. XI. Possessor malæ fidei rem cum fructibus ex navi locari sueta restituet. XII. Si incertum sit an navis conducta sit, actio in factum locum habet. XIII. De actione oneris aversi, quod nauta vehendum conduxit. XIV. De motione & refrigeratione fru- menti. I. Ordo nos vocat ad contractus nauticos qui consensu fiunt, & ex conventione legem accipiunt; & primò ad emtionem venditionem, dein locationem & conductionem, de quibus in hoc capite, de reliquis postea. Si quis ante domum mari aut alumini junctam molibus jactis ripam constituit, eamque domum alii vendidit, eodem jure vendet, quo fuerat prius quam veniret, l.52.ß. 3. D. de act. emt. vend. Sed & navicularia domus vendita transit cum suo onere. tototit. Cod. de præd. & omn. reb. navicul. II. Alluvionis periculum non præstat venditor l.64.ß.1. ff. de evict. nec eluvionis aut inundationis l.10.ß.1. ff. de peric. & com. r. v. nisi culpa ejus intervenerit vel præ- cesserit
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232 Ioh. Loccenii the freight charges for the whole cargo are owed to the master of the ship. X. For an infant whom a woman in the ship has given birth to, nothing is owed by way of freight. XI. A possessor in bad faith shall restore the thing with the fruits from a ship customarily let out. XII. If it is uncertain whether a ship has been hired, an action in factum lies. XIII. Concerning the action for cargo turned aside, which a sailor hired to carry. XIV. Concerning the movement and cooling of grain. I. The order calls us to maritime contracts which are made by consent, and receive their law from agreement; and first to sale and purchase, then to lease and hiring, of which in this chapter, and of the rest afterward. If someone, before a house joined to the sea or a river by moles was built, established a shore by throwing up embankments, and then sold that house to another, he shall sell it with the same right as it had before it came into his hands, l.52. § 3. D. de act. emt. vend. But a ship-house sold passes with its own burden. tototit. Cod. de præd. & omn. reb. navicul. II. The seller does not bear the risk of alluvion, l.64. § 1. ff. de evict.; nor of erosion or flooding, l.10. § 1. ff. de peric. & com. r. v., unless his fault intervened or preceded it.
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 233 cesserit, arg. l. 23. in fin. D. dereg. jur, & Rittersbus. ad eampag. 247. III. In quibusdam regnis & urbibus maritimis, pro usu publico & singulorum, venditio navium intra certum tempus prohibita est. In regno Daniæ navis ædificata, intra decem annos vendi prohibetur. Recessu R. Dan. de anno 1634. Ita Hamburgi. Recess. Hamb. M. S. art. 53. Lubecæ naves ibi conditæ intra septennium, Stralsundæ intra sexennium alienari prohibitæ sunt, nisi extrema necessitas urgeat. Mev. ad Iur. Lub. 3, 4, 6. Dantisci intra triennium. Statuti. Dantisc. sub Sigismund. In rem navigantium & navigationum quoque constitutum est in nonnullis maritimis civitatibus, ut, quando navis vendenda est, civis præ peregrino jure propinquiori habeat quasi jus congrui vel retractus. Ita cautum est Statutis Gedanens. p. 1. c. 4. a. 3. Idem in judicando sequutum esse Senatum Stralsundensem, notat Mevius ad jur. Lub. lib. 3. tit 7. n. 11. Etsi statuto tale quid ibi receptum non sit: dum utilitas civium communis, ex qua jus condi potest, exterorum compendiis præsertur. Et alias jure communi navis proprie juri retractui non est obnoxia: quippe quæ communiter inter res mobiles computatur l. 1. ß. 6. 7. D. devi & vi- arm.
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 233 ceded, arg. l. 23. in fin. D. dereg. jur, & Rittersbus. ad eampag. 247. III. In some kingdoms and maritime cities, for the public and individual use, the sale of ships has been prohibited within a certain time. In the kingdom of Denmark, a ship built may not be sold within ten years. Recess. R. Dan. of the year 1634. Likewise at Hamburg. Recess. Hamb. M. S. art. 53. At Lübeck, ships built there within seven years, and at Stralsund within six years, are prohibited from being alienated, unless extreme necessity compels it. Mev. ad Iur. Lub. 3, 4, 6. At Danzig within three years. Statuti. Dantisc. sub Sigismund. In favor of those navigating and of navigation it has also been established in certain maritime cities that, when a ship is to be sold, a citizen shall, in preference to a foreigner, have a nearer right, as it were a right of congruity or of pre-emption. Thus it is provided in the Statutes of Danzig, p. 1. c. 4. a. 3. The same, in judgment, is noted as followed by the Senate of Stralsund by Mevius ad jur. Lub. lib. 3. tit. 7. n. 11. Even if such a thing is not received there by statute: since the common utility of the citizens, from which a right can be created, is preferred to the advantage of outsiders. And otherwise, by the common law, a ship is not properly subject to the right of pre-emption: since it is commonly counted among movable things l. 1. § 6. 7. D. devi & vi- arm.
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234 Ioh. Loccenii arm. l. 20. 5. 20. D. quod vi aut clam. Zoes in Dig. tit. de jur. retract. n. 83. Ius retractus vero, in immobili bus propriè locum habet. In alia verò re immobili jus retractus habens, etiam post annum admittitur, necessitate maris impeditus. Carp[.] 1ur. for. 2. 32. 6. 7. IV. Si vinum aut aliud è navi sit venditum, vice traditionis custodiæ appositio sufficit. l. 5 1. in fin. de adq. posses Gothofred. ad l. 2. Cod. de peric. et comm. rei vend. V. Si quis vel interveniente scriptura, vel in præsentia testium, arræ vel dextræ datione, aliove externo signo deliberatum animum exprimente, navem conduxerit, alii oppignorare vel alienare nequit, sup. h. lib. c. 3. 5. 7. si legi conductionis parere nolit, secundum statuta &c locorum consuetudinem multabitur: Iure Succano servare renuens contractum conductæ navis arra firmatum una cum arræ amissione dimidium mercedis præstare tenetur. Si verò jam onerarit navem mercibus conductor, & enavigarit portu, & ex antenna appareat, quod navis sit procineta, si nihilominus excedere navi &c exonerare merces suas velit, totam vecturæ mercedem præstabit magistro navis. nisi ex necessitate & Sontica caussa id faciat arg. l. 27. 5. 1. D. loc. cond. Idem obtinebit
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234 Ioh. Loccenii arm. l. 20. 5. 20. D. quod vi aut clam. Zoes in Dig. tit. de jur. retract. n. 83. The right of retract, however, properly has place in immovable property. In another matter concerning immovable property, the person having the right of retract is also admitted after a year, if prevented by necessity of the sea. Carp[.] 1ur. for. 2. 32. 6. 7. IV. If wine or something else has been sold from a ship, the placing of it under custody suffices in place of delivery. l. 5 1. in fin. de adq. posses Gothofred. ad l. 2. Cod. de peric. et comm. rei vend. V. If anyone, either by an intervening writing, or in the presence of witnesses, by the giving of earnest money or a pledge, or by some other outward sign expressing a deliberate intention, has hired a ship, he cannot pledge or alienate it to another, sup. h. lib. c. 3. 5. 7. if he is unwilling to obey the law of the hire, according to the statutes and customary law of the places he shall be fined: by the law of Succanus, one who refuses to keep the contract of hire of a ship confirmed by earnest money is bound, together with the loss of the earnest money, to pay half the freight hire. But if the hirer has already loaded the ship with merchandise, and has sailed out of the port, and it appears from the stern that the ship is ready, if nevertheless he wishes to unload his goods from the ship and so forth, he shall pay the master of the ship the whole freight hire, unless he does this out of necessity and a weighty cause. arg. l. 27. 5. 1. D. loc. cond. The same shall obtain
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 235 tinebit in locante navem, si postea poenituerit. c. 15. 16. dejure nautic. Sued. Idem convenit legi Rhodiensium cap. 20. Actio de nave conducta etiam paratam habet executionem c. 16. LL. Suet. de proces curiali. VI. Si quis navem conduxerit cum conditione & promisso totam eam onerandi, quam tamen non plenè mercibus onerarit, nihilominus plenam vecturæ mercedem debet. Ita quoque lege nautica Rhodiorum statutum c. 23. ἡδῶν ὑμῶνος μὴ παρεχητῶν ὑμον πλήρη, τῶν λιπατομένων παρεχέτωτα ναῦλα. Si mercator plenum onus non præstet, residuorum naula solvat. Idem obtinet, si adversione, vel in universo non in singulas amphoras navis conducta sit. Si verò pro numero impositarum amphorarum merces constituta sit, tunc pro tot amphoris vecturæ merces debetur, quot impositæ sunt l. 10. 5. 2. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu cujus legis emendationem & explicationem vide apud Pancirollum lib. 2. Variar. Iur. Lection. cap. 34. Confer. Benvenutum Straccham de Navib. n. 12. 14. Idem convenit Statutis Hamburg. 2, 15, 3. VII. Si mercator promiserit ad certum tempus inferre merces in navem, nec id fecerit, illud temporis & lucri dispendium præstare conductorem æquum est; aut
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On Maritime Law, Book III. 235 it shall bind the one who lets the ship, if he afterward repent. c. 15. 16. de iure nautic. Sued. The same agrees with the Rhodian law, chapter 20. An action for a hired ship likewise has immediate execution, c. 16. LL. Suet. de proces curiali. VI. If anyone has hired a ship with the condition and promise of loading it entirely, but nevertheless has not loaded it fully with merchandise, he nonetheless owes the full freight hire. So too is it established by the nautical law of the Rhodians, chapter 23. ἡδῶν ὑμῶνος μὴ παρεχητῶν ὑμον πλήρη, τῶν λιπατομένων παρεχέτωτα ναῦλα. If the merchant does not furnish a full load, let him pay freight on the remainder. The same holds if the ship was hired by bulk, or as a whole, not by separate amphorae. If, however, the freight charge was fixed according to the number of amphorae loaded, then freight is owed for as many amphorae as were loaded, l. 10. 5. 2. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu, concerning the correction and explanation of this law, see Pancirollus, lib. 2. Variar. Iur. Lection. cap. 34. Compare Benvenutus Straccha, de Navib. n. 12. 14. The same is agreed by the Statutes of Hamburg, 2, 15, 3. VII. If the merchant has promised to bring goods into the ship at a certain time, and does not do so, it is equitable that he make good to the charterer the loss of that time and the profit; or
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236 Ioh. Loccenii aut plenam vecturæ mercedem solvere magistro navis, si parata navi ad navigandum vacuum ei navis spatium in præsentia testium ostenderit magister navis, ut est in Legibus nautic. Hanseatic. art. 12. Sed & ne magistri navis incuria atque mora iter negligatur, aut merces dominorum deteriores reddantur, in tempore expediet navem eique de annona prospiciet. Dictis legibus nautic. Hanseaticis artic. 11. cautum est, ut quando merces ultimas in navem recepit nauta, intra biduum vel triduum favente vento abeat, sub poena, quinquaginta aureorum. Sed hæc poena aliis gentibus arbitraria esse potest. VIII. Si quis ea conditione conduxerit navem, ut, nisi intra præfinitum tempus merces eo loci magister navis exposuerit, in quem devehendas eas locarat, poenam præstaret certam; ille vero præter opinionem à loci magistratu detentus sit, ut ei angarias aut onus publicum præstet, aut alia causa detentus, atque ita prohibitus sit cum tuis mercibus navigare, excusatur, culpaque caret qui imperata fecit. nec debet pati dispendium, qui imperium fecit alienum. Cassiod. Var. Ep 12, 3. & 2, 26. Si merces exonerarit, & transtulerit in aliam navem quæ perie- rit
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236 Ioh. Loccenii either to pay the full freight charge to the master of the ship, if the ship being ready for sailing, the master of the ship shall have shown him, in the presence of witnesses, the empty space in the ship, as is in the Hanseatic Maritime Laws, art. 12. But so that, through the master of the ship’s negligence and delay, the voyage may not be neglected, or the merchants’ goods be made worse, he shall fit out the ship in due time and provide it with provisions. In the said Hanseatic Maritime Laws, art. 11, it is provided that when the sailor has received the last goods into the ship, he shall depart within two days or three days if the wind is favorable, under a penalty of fifty gold coins. But this penalty may be discretionary among other peoples. VIII. If anyone shall have hired a ship on the condition that, unless within a fixed time the master of the ship should land the goods at the place to which he had undertaken to carry them, he should pay a fixed penalty; but if he himself should, contrary to expectation, be detained by the magistracy of the place, so that he must perform angariae or public service, or is detained for some other cause, and is thus prevented from sailing with your goods, he is excused, and the one who did what was commanded is without fault. Nor ought he to suffer loss, who performed another’s command. Cassiod. Var. Ep. 12, 3. & 2, 26. If he shall have unloaded the goods, and transferred them into another ship which perished
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 237 rit absque ejus culpa, non tenetur quoque nauta. Si verò in deteriorem, quam ejus erat, & minus validam intulerit navem merces, quæ cum navi perierunt, ei damnum hoc imputabitur; præsertim cum meliorem invenire potuisset navem, & sciret id nolle dominum, ut in aliam quam suam navem merces transportaret; nisi jussu magistratus hoc fecerit. l. 10. ß. 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. Idem juris erit in eodem genere conventionis, vel conditionis (ita scribendum cum Vinnio in d. l. 10. ß. 1. pro cogitationis) i. e. de certa poena præstanda, si merces ad conventum locum non transportarit nauta, ut nimirum non teneatur ex dicta poena, si probatum fuerit nautam morbo aut alia fontica caussa impeditum navigare non potuisse; nisi jussus sit sui vicem alium substituere. Nec teneatur, si navis vitium fecerit absque dolo & culpa ejus. d. l. 10. ß. 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. & in eam Cujacius lib. 3. Observ. c. 2. Vinnius pag. 291. 292. & seqq. Si ea conditione navem conduxisti, ut eâ merces tuæ portarentur, easque merces nauta nulla necessitate coactus aut quod flumen illa navis subire non posset, in aliam navem vel deteriorem, vel invito domino, vel alieno tempore transiulerit, & merces tuæ cum hac po- -teriori-
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 237 If the goods are lost without his fault, the sailor is not liable either. But if he has put the goods into a worse and less seaworthy ship than the one they were in, and they have perished together with the ship, this loss will be imputable to him; especially since he could have found a better ship, and knew that the owner did not wish the goods to be carried in any ship other than his own, unless he did this by order of a magistrate. l. 10. §. 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jactu. The same rule will apply in the same kind of agreement, or condition (thus it should be written with Vinnius in the said l. 10. §. 1. in place of cogitationis), that is, concerning a fixed penalty to be paid if the sailor does not transport the goods to the agreed place, namely, he will not be liable for the said penalty if it is proved that the sailor was unable to sail because of illness or another forceful cause; unless he was ordered to substitute another in his place. Nor will he be liable if the ship has become defective without his fraud or fault. d. l. 10. §. 1. D. ad leg. Rhod. de jact. & on this see Cujacius, lib. 3. Observ. c. 2. Vinnius, p. 291, 292, and following. If you hired a ship on the condition that your goods were to be carried in it, and the sailor, compelled by no necessity or because that ship could not enter a river, transferred those goods into another ship, either worse, or against the owner’s will, or at an improper time, and your goods with this later-
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238 Ioh. Loccenii steriori nave perierint, tenetur navicularius, & ex locato cum ipso agi potest. d. l. 10. 1. ad l. Rh. de jact. l. item quæritur si navicularius D. loc. cond. IX. Si navis aut merces in mari perierint, num nihilominus vecturæ merces debebitur naviculario, aut prærogata ab eo restituetur? Deberi videtur, si damnum non culpá ejus, sed casu fortuito acciderit, & per eum non steterit, quo minus locatas operas præstaret. l. 38. D. locati cond. l. 10. Cod. de condict. ob caus. Attamen si non secutum sit, propter quod data merces aut promissa est, nonne tunc vel data repeti, vel promissa non deberi potest? per l. 15. 6. D. loc. cond. & casus fortuitus non debet nocere conductori & prodesse locatori. Gloss. ad d. l. AEquitas tamen admittere videtur, ut magister navis vecturæ mercede non in totum careat, sed pro rata temporis quo munere vehendi functus non est, & pro quantitate servatarum mercium. arg. l. 15. 7. D. loc. cond. Straccha de Navib. v. 24. confer. jus Prussic. lib. 4. tit. 19. artic. 3. 1. 2. et Statuta Lubec. tit. de naufrag. art. 1. 2. Si vero navis onerata in aliquo portu ob illicitas merces (quas conductor navi imposuit) retenta sit, & merces vetitæ in comm illum ceciderint, nihilominus integras vecturas vel mercedem
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238 Ioh. Loccenii if they perished in the latter ship, the shipmaster is liable, and an action ex locato can be brought against him. d. l. 10. 1. ad l. Rh. de jact. l. item quæritur si navicularius D. loc. cond. IX. If the ship or the goods have perished at sea, whether nevertheless the freight charge is to be owed to the shipmaster, or the sum prepaid by him is to be restored? It seems to be owed, if the loss happened not through his fault, but by a fortuitous event, and it was not due to him that he did not render the hired services. l. 38. D. locati cond. l. 10. Cod. de condict. ob caus. However, if that for the sake of which the freight was given or promised did not take place, may it not then either be recovered if given, or be held not due if promised? per l. 15. 6. D. loc. cond. & casus fortuitus non debet nocere conductori & prodesse locatori. Gloss. ad d. l. Equity nevertheless seems to admit that the master of the ship should not be entirely deprived of the freight, but should receive it pro rata for the time during which he did not perform the duty of transport, and according to the amount of the goods saved. arg. l. 15. 7. D. loc. cond. Straccha de Navib. v. 24. confer. jus Prussic. lib. 4. tit. 19. artic. 3. 1. 2. et Statuta Lubec. tit. de naufrag. art. 1. 2. But if a ship laden with cargo is detained in some port because of illicit goods (which the carrier had placed on the ship), and forbidden goods have fallen on account thereof into the common loss, nevertheless the full freight or compensation
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 239 dem totam nauta â conductore navis exigere potest: quia hic nulla culpa nautæ vel locatoris, sed solius conductoris intervenit, nec ille merè casus fortuitus est, sed quem culpa domini præcessit. l.61. §. 1. D. loc. cond. Pac. cent. 5. concil. 16. n. 18. X. Si quis mulierem navi vehendam conduxisset, quæ infantem in navi peperit, pro eo infante nihil debetur: cum ejus vectura non magna sit, nec iis omnibus utatur, quæ ad navigantium usum parantur l.19. §.7. D. loc. c. XI. Possessor malæ fidei non solum navim, sed etiam fructus æstimatos quos petitor percipere potuisset, restituet ex navi quæ locari solet l.62. ff. de rei vendic. XII. Mercator quidam tradidit merces magistro navis, sed incertum est an navem conduxerit, aut merces vehendas locaverit, hic civilem actionem in factum ei dandum Labeo & Papinianus scripserunt l.1. §.1. D. de præscr. verb. e. i. f. a. XIII. In navem Sauffei plures locatores commune frumentum contulerunt & confuderunt. Sauffeius uni ex his frumentum pro sua parte reddidit de communi; deinde navis cum reliquo onere perit. quamvis hujus rei damnum pertineat ad locatores, si sine dolo & culpa nautæ acciderit, tamen inspecie proposita quæritur, num actio- ac
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 239 the whole may be claimed by the shipowner from the charterer: because here no fault of either the sailor or the lessor intervenes, but only that of the charterer; nor is it a mere accidental event, but one preceded by the fault of the owner. l. 61. §. 1. D. loc. cond. Pac. cent. 5. concil. 16. n. 18. X. If anyone had hired a woman to be carried in a ship, who gave birth to an infant on board the ship, nothing is owed for that infant: since its transport is not great, nor does it use all those things which are prepared for the use of travelers. l. 19. §. 7. D. loc. c. XI. A possessor in bad faith will restore not only the ship, but also the assessed fruits which the claimant could have gathered, from a ship which is usually let out for hire. l. 62. ff. de rei vendic. XII. Certain merchant delivered goods to the master of the ship, but it is uncertain whether he hired the ship, or let the goods to be carried; Labeo and Papinian wrote that a civil action in factum should be granted to him. l. 1. §. 1. D. de præscr. verb. e. i. f. a. XIII. On the ship of Sauffeus several charterers brought together and mixed common grain. Sauffeus returned to one of them the grain for his share out of the common stock; afterward the ship with the remaining cargo perished. Although the loss of this matter belongs to the charterers, if it happened without fraud and fault of the sailors, nevertheless in the case proposed it is asked whether the action- ac
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240 Ioh. Loccenii ne oneris aversi nauta teneatur aliis locatoribus? quasi videatur onus navi impositum avertisse, permutasse aut distraxisse, ex eo partem uni ex locatoribus reddendo: quo factum est, ut hic salvam suam partem habeat, reliqui non habeant. Hic intuendum num id actum sit ut eadem res quæ locata erat redderetur, an verò alia ejusdem generis, ut frumentum pro frumento atq[ue] sic in creditum iretur, vel quasi mutuum quodam genere contraheretur. in priori casu frumentum non factum videtur Saufei, sed in posteriori factum videtur & rectè datum. Si verò nauta onus frumenti vehendum de pluribus conduxerit, & locatores frumentum non consuderint, sed distinctis tabulis separarint, ita ut internosci posset, quid cujusque esset, & uni ex locatoribus nauta frumentum suum reddiderit, rectè fecit, nec oneris aversi actione tenetur. sed si alienum reddiderit, domino vindicatio frumenti sui contra possessorem competit, & actio oneris aversi aut furti contra nautam. Si verò consuderint frumenta, ut initio dictum, & sic in creditum ierint communiter, frumentum factum nautæ videtur, & ideo uni dando pro sua parte, onus avertere non videtur, rectè dare videtur. quamvis autem culpa nautæ in eo esse videatur, quod
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240 Ioh. Loccenii whether the carrier of the diverted cargo is liable to the other shippers? as though he were seen to have turned aside, exchanged, or disposed of the cargo placed on the ship, by handing over part of it to one of the shippers: with the result that this one has his own share safely, while the others do not have theirs. Here it must be considered whether this was done so that the very same thing that had been hired out was returned, or rather another of the same kind, as wheat for wheat, and thus credit was entered into, or as though a loan of some sort were being contracted. In the former case the wheat does not seem to have been made into Saufei, but in the latter it seems to have been made so and rightly given. But if the sailor had undertaken to carry a cargo of wheat from several persons, and the shippers had not mixed their wheat together, but had separated it into distinct heaps, so that it could be distinguished which belonged to each man, and the sailor had returned his wheat to one of the shippers, he acted rightly, and is not liable under the action for diverted cargo. But if he returned another man’s wheat, the owner has an action for vindication of his own wheat against the possessor, and an action for diverted cargo or theft against the sailor. But if they had mixed the wheats together, as was said at the beginning, and thus entered into credit communally, the wheat seems to have become the sailor’s, and therefore by giving to one person for his share, he does not seem to have diverted the cargo, but to have given rightly. Although, however, the sailor’s fault in this matter seems to be that
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 241 quod ex re communi uni reddidit, tamen omnimodò non est culpa: quia alicui primùm reddere necesse fuit, tametsi ejus conditionem meliorem faceret, quam cæterorum l. 31. D. loc. cond. Cujac. 7. Obs. 39. fusè. qui si per se vigilaverit, industria ejus poenas desidiæ reliquorum non solvet l. 12. C. depositi. XIV. Frumentum in navi movebit nau- ra, quoties necesse fuerit: ne corrumpatur. nisi fecerit, tenebitur, excepto, si per tempestatem aut procellam impedia- tur. Pro hoc tamen labore singularem mer- cedem ex æquo feret. CAP. VI. De Societate navali pacata. I. Societas navalis pacata unde dicatur. II. Societatem navalem pacatam vel negociatoriam esse vetusti moris, probatur exemplo Salomonis. quæ fuerit ophyra, obiter notatur. Cur Salomoni feliciter cesserit societas navalis, Iosaphato in- feliciter. III. Num contractus Societatis navalis cum Iudæis sit licitus. IV. De modo & fine Societatis navalis. L V. Par-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 241 what he returned to one from common property, nevertheless it is by no means a fault: because it was necessary to return it first to someone, although this made his condition better than that of the others. l. 31. D. loc. cond. Cujac. 7. Obs. 39. more fully. if, when he himself has kept watch, his diligence will not pay the penalties of the negligence of the rest l. 12. C. depositi. XIV. Grain in the ship shall be moved by the sea- man whenever it is necessary, so that it may not spoil. if he does not do so, he shall be liable, except if he is hindered by storm or tempest. For this labor, however, he shall receive a special reward in fairness. CAP. VI. On a peaceful naval partnership. I. Whence a peaceful naval partnership is so called. II. That a peaceful or commercial naval partnership is an ancient custom, is proved by the example of Solomon. what Ophir was is noted in passing. Why Solomon prospered in naval partnership, while Jehoshaphat did so unsuccessfully. III. Whether a contract of naval partnership with the Jews is lawful. IV. On the manner and purpose of a naval partnership. L V. Par-
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242 Ioh. Loccenii V. Participatio lucri non damni quando hic admittatur. VI. Naufragii damnum commune est sociis. I. Contraetus nauticos qui consensu fi- unt, nimirum emtionem venditio- nem, locat. condunctionem, modò discus- sos nunc ordine excipit societas navalis. Hanc Societatem navalem esse bellicam vel pacatam, sup. lib. 2. c. 2. indicatum, & de bellica ibidem per occasionem actum est. Hic de societate pacata agemus: quæ quamvis etiam armatas naves præsidii caussa sibi adjunctas habere possit, tamen pacata nuncupatur, quatenus extra con- flictum armorum, præcipuè negociationis caussa adornatur. II. Societas navalis pacata non minus est antiqui moris, quam bellica: veluti inter alia constat ex societate Salomonis, quam cum Hiram & Tyriis hujus sub- ditis rei maritimæ & navigationis peritis conjuncta classe contraxit, aurum ex Ophi- ra petendi causa. 1. Reg. 9. v. 27. 28. & 2. Paralip. 8. v. 30. Ophira autem ab Ophiro filio Ioctanis, cujus meminit Moses Gen. 10. v. 29. ita dicta, existimatur illa esse re- gio Indiæ Orientalis, quæ ultra Gangem uta, regnum Pegusiæ nunc appellatur: cui vicinæ
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242 Ioh. Loccenii V. Participation in profit, not in loss, when this is admitted. VI. The loss of shipwreck is common to the partners. I. The nautical contracts which are formed by agreement, namely purchase and sale, hiring and letting, the naval partnership now takes up in due order, after they have been discussed. This naval partnership, whether warlike or peaceful, was indicated above in lib. 2. c. 2., and the warlike kind was there treated of incidentally. Here we shall deal with the peaceful partnership: although it can also have armed ships attached to it for protection, it is nevertheless called peaceful insofar as it is equipped outside of conflict of arms, chiefly for the sake of trade. II. The peaceful naval partnership is no less ancient in custom than the warlike one: as is clear, among other things, from Solomon’s partnership, which he entered into with Hiram and the Tyrians, experts in maritime matters and navigation, by means of a joined fleet, for the purpose of seeking gold from Ophir. 1 Kings 9:27, 28, and 2 Chronicles 8:30. But Ophir, so named from Ophir the son of Joktan, whom Moses mentions in Gen. 10:29, is thought to be that region of East India which lies beyond the Ganges, now called the kingdom of Pegusia: whose neighboring
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De lure Maritimo Lib. III. 243 vicinæ sunt aurea Chersonesus, Malaca & Somatra; uti Varrerius Lusitanus in commentario suo de Ophyra regione lu- culenter probat. confer quoque Grotium ad lib. 3. Reg. c. 9. v. 28. Sed quifactum est, quod Salomoni feliciter cessit, Io- saphato verò infeliciter Societas navalis: cum tamen utrique idem scopus de ad- vehendo auro videatur fuisse propositus? Solomon hanc societatem instinctu divino contrahebat. Quippe ipsi ingentes à Deo divitiæ erant promissæ 1. Reg. 3. v. 13. quas cumulabant istæ navigationes in Ophiram. Et Salomon non exiguam auri & opum suarum partem impendebat in honorem Dei & exstructionem templi à Deo Salo- moni impositam: ideò institutum Salo- monis Deo placebat & ex voto Regi sa- pientissimo succedebat. Sed Iosaphatus inibat foedus commerciorum & societa- tem navalem cum Ahasia rege impio, & fiducia humanarum opum. quod fiebat Deo invito & irato: ideoque naves Io- saphati disruptæ sunt 2. Paralip. 20. vers. 35. 36. 37. III. Ex hoc exemplo Theologi ansam arripuerunt negandi Christianum bona cum conscientia contractum Societatis navalis cum Iudæo coire posse; de quæ Facultatis Theologicæ lenensis in 2. parte L 2 consi-
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De Jure Maritimo Lib. III. 243 the Golden Chersonese, Malaca, and Somatra are nearby; as Varrerius Lusitanus demonstrates clearly in his commentary on the region of Ophir. See also Grotius on 3 Kings c. 9. v. 28. But how did it happen that what succeeded happily for Solomon failed for Jehoshaphat? the naval partnership, although the same purpose, namely the bringing in of gold, seems to have been proposed to both? Solomon entered into this partnership by divine inspiration. For great riches had been promised to him by God, 1 Kings 3. v. 13, and these were accumulated by those voyages to Ophir. And Solomon expended no small part of his gold and wealth in honor of God and in the building of the temple imposed on Solomon by God; therefore Solomon’s undertaking pleased God and succeeded, as he wished, for the wisest king. But Jehoshaphat entered into a commercial alliance and naval partnership with Ahaziah the impious king, and with confidence in human wealth, which was done against God’s will and while He was angry; and therefore the ships of Jehoshaphat were broken up, 2 Chronicles 20, verses 35, 36, 37. III. From this example the theologians took occasion to deny that a Christian can, with a good conscience, enter into a naval partnership with a Jew; concerning which the Faculty of Theology at Leiden in the second part L 2 consi-
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244 Ioh. Loccenii consiliorum Dedekenni, pag. 151. & in Iudaismo Mulleri pag. 1485. Consilium exstat, quod è Germanico in Latinum sermonem ita vertebam: Sententiæ S. Scripturæ, quæ nos à consvetudine cum idololatris & superstitiosis dehortantur, veluti Iesa. 52. v. 11. 2. Cor. 6. v. 14. & seqq. Apoc. 18. v. 5. &c. primariò quidem de interna communione spiritus, animi & fidei intelligenda sunt; attamen secundariò & consequenter nos simul monent, ne nimis civilem & externam societatem cum illis colamus. partim nostri causa, ne ab illis contaminemur & seducamur, vel etiam multa videre & audire cogamur, quæ nobis, modò Zelum Christianæ pietatis habeamus, adversa sint. partim proximi caussa, ne illi scandalo simus, aut occasionem præbeamus malè de nobis cogitandi, quasi religionem tanti non faciamus. Ab omni specie mali abstinete, inquit Apostolus 1. Thess. 5. v. 22. Iam autem negari nequit, quin speciem mali habeat, & prorsus magna atque arcta conjunctio sit, quando cum Iudæo contractus societatis navalis initur, animo lucrum & damnum, bonum & malum simul periclitandi & subeundi, & ex suis atque Iudæi facultatibus unam quasi placentam aut massam faciendi. Quomodo verò talis conjunctio cum heterodoxis Deo placeat de eo evidens & memorabile exemplum ha- bemus
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244 Ioh. Loccenii consiliorum Dedekenni, p. 151, and in Muller's Iudaismo , p. 1485. There is a consultation, which I translated from German into Latin as follows: The sayings of Holy Scripture, which dissuade us from fellowship with idolaters and the superstitious, such as Isa. 52:11, 2 Cor. 6:14, and following, Rev. 18:5, etc., are to be understood primarily indeed of inward communion of spirit, mind, and faith; yet secondarily and consequently they also warn us not to cultivate too close a civil and external association with them: partly for our own sake, lest we be contaminated and led astray by them, or even be forced to see and hear many things which, if only we have zeal for Christian piety, are contrary to us; partly for our neighbor's sake, lest we be a stumbling block to them, or give occasion for thinking badly of us, as though we made little of religion. “Abstain from all appearance of evil,” says the Apostle, 1 Thess. 5:22. But now it cannot be denied that there is an appearance of evil, and quite a great and close union, when a contractual partnership at sea is entered into with a Jew, with the intention of risking and undergoing profit and loss, good and evil together, and of making, as it were, one cake or mass out of one's own resources and the Jew's. But how such a union with heterodox persons may please God, of this we have a clear and memorable example
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 245 bemus 2. Paral. 20. v. 35. 36. 37. (quod jam sup. ß. 3. commemoratum est.) Quamobrem si in hujusmodi societate navali Christiano hominis quid improsperi accideret, nequaquam eum in conscientia securum reddere possemus, quin pro poena Dei esset habendum. Quod autem alios contractus in emendo & vendendo attinet, eorum diversa ratio est, quia in illis non tam arcta & singularis communio intercedit, quàm in contractu societatis. Attamen in illis quoque verus Christianus conscientiæ suæ & honestati consulet. Quod in hoc consilio Theologico de arcta conjunctione vel communione circa contractum Societatis dicitur, convenit etiam juri. nam in l. 63. D. pro socio, Societas jus quodammodo fraternitatis in se habere dicitur. IV. Societas navalis bonorum in naves collatorum, & negotiationis transmarinæ caussa initur: ita ut singuli socii æquas partes lucri & damni ferant. V. Aliquando tamen societas ita coiri potest, ut alter nullius partem damni sentiat, lucrum verò ipsi commune sit. ut si tanti sit opera alicujus, quanti damnum est; aut si plus societati conferat quam pecunia: ut si, reliquis domi desidentibus, solus naviget & pericula subeat solus ß. 2. Inst. de Societ. l. 29 ß. 1. D. pro socio. L 3 VI. Abs-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 245 See 2 Paral. 20. vv. 35, 36, 37. (which has already been mentioned above, §. 3.) Wherefore if in such a maritime partnership anything unfortunate should happen to a Christian man, we could by no means make him secure in conscience, unless it were to be regarded as a punishment of God. But as to other contracts in buying and selling, the reason is different, because in them there is not so close and singular a community as in the contract of partnership. Nevertheless, in those also a true Christian will consult his conscience and honesty. What is said in this theological discussion about a close union or community concerning the contract of partnership, agrees also with the law. For in l. 63. D. pro socio, partnership is said to have in itself, in a certain sense, the right of brotherhood. IV. A maritime partnership of goods contributed to ships, and for the sake of overseas trade, is entered into: so that the several partners bear equal shares of profit and loss. V. Sometimes, however, a partnership can be formed so that one bears no share of the loss, but the profit is common to him. For example, if a person's labor is worth as much as the loss; or if he contributes more to the partnership than money: as if, while the rest stay at home, he alone sails and alone undergoes the dangers. §. 2. Inst. de Societ. l. 29 §. 1. D. pro socio. L 3 VI. Abs-
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188 esse pro quo possunt in ten medes bede[n]t[ur] debet. qua pro alio de possit, ditas merè Belgicè pellarum. II. Hæc ge Rhodin mente legi AEquitas rationi con quior: ut nil sarciatur, qu rigit; præse amissis rebu runt alioqu sunt locup genribus corum re- c. 1 1. 1 3. III. C vocant de grandis, u stylo vel p in Peckad gerribus 189 lib. C De Cæcilius qui 1. De 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 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188 esse pro quo possunt in ten medes bede[n]t[ur] debet. qua pro alio de possit, ditas merè Belgicè pellarum. II. Hæc ge Rhodin mente legi AEquitas rationi con quior: ut nil sarciatur, qu rigit; præse amissis rebu runt alioqu sunt locup genribus corum re- c. 1 1. 1 3. III. C vocant de grandis, u stylo vel p in Peckad gerribus 189 lib. C De Cæcilius qui 1. De
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Lib. III. 247 in mutuo danda ma- ria. citores aut magistri unc obligentur exer- citati conveniat, ut magistri navis in so- cum actio in exercito- e illatorum in navem respectu vectorum fa- citur. quousque se hoc tuitus hic à mandata- tore præstandus? ris in instituenda actio- itorem vel magistrum iam actionem exercitori um. oria hæredi ex in hæ- alis contractum nunc ui deberet Mandatum. cor magistro navis cu- andet l. 1. ß. 1. D. de co hinc mandati agere tio. de eo, quatenus L 4 huc
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Lib. III. 247 things to be given in loan. merchants or shipmasters are to be bound by this agreement; it is fitting that the shipmasters should have an action against the contractor, with respect to the things carried into the ship in relation to the passengers’ goods. How far is this protection to be provided by the contractor? ... in instituting the action ... whether against the contractor or the shipmaster ... now the action to the shipowner ... ... ... to the heir from the ... ... a contractual matter now ... ... ought to have been a mandate. ... because of the shipmaster ... ... should have an action on mandate; l. 1, § 1, D. de ... ... on this point, so far as ... L 4 huc
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246 Ioh. Loccenii VI. Absque hoc sit, commune periculum est inter socios l.24. D. eod. & commune eorum damnum, si quid naufragio periit. Sicuti enim lucrum, ita quoque damnum commune esse oportet, quod non culpa socii contingit. l. 52. ß. 4. D. pro soc. Paulus 2. Sent. 16. Plura de Societate navali habes in Legibus nauticis Rhodiorum c. 9. c. 17. 21. 27. 28. 32. Vid. sup. lib. 1. c. 2. ß. 6. CAP. VII. De Exercitoria Actione. I. Demandato. II. Vnde appelletur Ælio exercitoria, & quæ sit. III. Præpositorum navi officium. IV. Perinde esse, cujus sint conditionis aut sexus magister navis & exercitores. V. Exercitores teneri contrahentibus. Caussa hujus rei. VI. Cujus rei actio competat contrahenti cum magistro navis adversus exercitorem. VII. Si magister navis mutuo sumtam pecuniam non in navis sed suos usus converterit, num inde detur actio in exercitorem. VIII. Cantio
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246 Ioh. Loccenii VI. Without this, there is common risk among partners l. 24. D. eod. and common loss to them, if anything perished in a shipwreck. For just as profit, so too loss ought to be common, when it does not occur through the fault of a partner. l. 52. § 4. D. pro soc. Paulus 2. Sent. 16. More on the partnership of ships you have in the Naval Laws of the Rhodians c. 9. c. 17. 21. 27. 28. 32. See above lib. 1. c. 2. § 6. CHAP. VII. On the Exercitorial Action. I. By mandate. II. Whence it is called, by Aelius, exercitoria, and what it is. III. The duty of those in charge of the ship. IV. That it makes no difference of what condition or sex the shipmaster and the shipowners are. V. The shipowners are liable to those contracting with them. The cause of this matter. VI. In what matter the action lies for one contracting with the shipmaster against the shipowner. VII. If the shipmaster, having borrowed money not for the use of the ship but for his own uses, transferred it, whether an action lies thereby against the shipowner. VIII. Assurance
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 247 VIII. Cautio creditoris in mutuo danda magistro navis pecunia. IX. Si plures sint exercitores aut magistri navis, quomodo tunc obligentur exercitores. X. Num naturali æquitati conveniat, ut exercitor ex facto magistri navis in solidum teneatur. XI. Ex delicto nautarum actio in exercitorem. XII. Exercitor nomine illatorum in navem tenetur: eoque respectu vectorum factum præstare dicitur. quousque se hoc extendat. XIII. Num casus fortuitus hic à mandatario, vel mandatore præstandus? XIV. Electio creditoris in instituenda actione contra exercitorem vel magistrum navis. XV. Non dari contrariam actionem exercitori contra creditorem. XVI. Actio exercitoria hæredi ex in hæredem datur. I. Societatis navalis contractum nunc ordine subsequi deberet Mandatum. Verum cum Exercitor magistro navis curam totius navis mandet l. 1. ß. 1. D. de exerc. act. Et cum eo hinc mandati agere possit l. 1. ß. 18. d. tit. de eo, quatenus L 4 huc
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 247 VIII. Security to be given by the creditor in a loan of money to the master of a ship. IX. If there are several owners or masters of the ship, how then the owners are bound. X. Whether it accords with natural equity that the owner should be held in full for the act of the master of the ship. XI. An action against the owner arising from the fault of the sailors. XII. The owner is liable in respect of things carried into the ship: and in that respect he is said to be answerable for the acts of passengers. How far this extends. XIII. Whether a fortuitous event here is to be borne by the mandatary, or by the mandator? XIV. The creditor’s choice in bringing an action against the owner or the master of the ship. XV. That there is no contrary action for the owner against the creditor. XVI. The exercitor action lies from heir against heir. I. The contract of shipowning should now in order be followed by Mandate. But since the owner entrusts to the master of the ship the care of the whole ship, l. 1. § 1. D. de exerc. act. And since with him he may from here bring an action on mandate, l. 1. § 18. d. tit. concerning this, insofar as L 4 here
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246 Ioh. Loccenii VI. Absque hoc sit, commune periculum est inter socios l.24. D. cod. & commune eorum damnum, si quid naufragio periit. Sicuti enim lucrum, ita quoque damnum commune esse oportet, quod non culpa socii contingit. l.52. ß.4. D. pro soc. Paulus 2. Sent. 16. Plura de Societate navali habes in Legibus nauticis Rhodiorum c.9. c.17. 21. 27. 28. 32. Vid. sup. lib. 1. c.2. ß.6. CAP. VII. De Exercitoria Actione. I. Demandato. II. Vnde appelletur Ælio exercitoria, & quæ sit. III. Præpositorum navi officium. IV. Perinde esse, cujus sint conditionis aut sexus magister navis & exercitores. V. Exercitores teneri contrahentibus. caussa hujus rei. VI. Cujus rei actio competat contrahenti cum magistro navis adversus exercitorem. VII. Si magister navis mutuo sumtam pecuniam non in navis sed suos usus converterit, num inde detur actio in exercitorem. VIII. Cautio
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246 Ioh. Loccenii VI. Without this, there is common risk among partners, l. 24. D. cod. & common loss for them if anything has perished by shipwreck. For as gain, so also loss ought to be common, when it does not happen through the fault of a partner. l. 52. §. 4. D. pro soc. Paulus 2. Sent. 16. More on maritime partnership you have in the Nautical Laws of the Rhodians, c. 9, c. 17, 21, 27, 28, 32. Vid. sup. lib. 1. c. 2. §. 6. CHAP. VII. On the Exercitorial Action. I. By mandate. II. Whence it is called by Aelius the exercitorial, and what it is. III. The duty of those in command of a ship. IV. It is all the same of what condition or sex the shipmaster and exercitores are. V. Exercitores are liable to those contracting; the reason for this matter. VI. For what matter an action lies for one contracting with the shipmaster against the exercitor. VII. If the shipmaster has converted money borrowed not to the use of the ship but to his own uses, whether from this an action is given against the exercitor. VIII. Security
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 247 VIII. Cautio creditoris in mutuo danda magistro navis pecunia. IX. Si plures sint exercitores aut magistri navis, quomodo tunc obligentur exercitores. X. Num naturali equitati conveniat, ut exercitor ex facto magistri navis in solidum teneatur. XI. Ex delicto nautarum actio in exercitorem. XII. Exercitor nomine illatorum in navem tenetur: eoque respectu vectorum factum præstare dicitur, quousque se hoc extendat. XIII. Num casus fortuitus hic à mandatario, vel mandatore præstandus? XIV. Electio creditoris in instituenda actione contra exercitorem vel magistrum navis. XV. Non dari contrariam actionem exercitori contra creditorem. XVI. Actio exercitoria hæredi et in hæredem datur. I. Societatis navalis contractum nunc ordine subsequi deberet Mandatum. Verum cum Exercitor magistro navis curam totius navis mandet l. 1. ß. 1. D. de exerc. act. Et cum eo hinc mandati agere possit l. 1. ß. 18. d. tit. de eo, quatenus L 4 huc
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De Iure Maritimo Book III. 247 VIII. Security to be given to the creditor in a loan of money to the ship’s master. IX. If there are several ship-owners or masters of the ship, how then the ship-owners are bound. X. Whether it accords with natural equity that the ship-owner should be held in full for the act of the ship’s master. XI. An action against the ship-owner for the wrongdoing of the sailors. XII. The ship-owner is liable in the name of those who are carried in the ship; and in this respect he is said to answer for the acts of the passengers, as far as this extends. XIII. Whether a fortuitous accident here is to be borne by the agent or by the principal? XIV. The creditor’s choice in bringing an action against the ship-owner or the ship’s master. XV. That no contrary action lies for the ship-owner against the creditor. XVI. The exercitoria action is given to and against the heir. I. The contract of maritime partnership ought now in order to follow Mandate. But since the ship-owner entrusts to the ship’s master the care of the whole ship, l. 1. § 1. D. de exerc. act. And since he may therefore sue on mandate, l. 1. § 18. d. tit. de eo, so far as this extends L 4 huc
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248 Ioh. Loccenii huc pertinet, & inprimis de Exercitoria Actione nunc disseremus. II. Exercitoria dicitur Actio ab exercitatione navis: cujus tanta est utilitas, ut ad summam remp. pertineat l. 1. ß. 20. h. t. Exercitores navis sunt patroni navium Suedicè Reedare/ à Reeda vel Vthreeda/ quasi qui expediunt navem, Belg. & Germanice Reeders/ Schiffs=freunde/ qui quæstum ex navi exercent, vel ad quos obventiones & reditus navis perveniunt, sive domini navis sint, sive per aversionem à dominis navem conduxerint, vel ad tempus vel in perpetuum. ß. 2. Inst. quod cum eo q. i. a. p. l. 1. ß. 15. D. de exerc. act. In l. 1. ß. 2. D. nautæ camp. st. etiam nautæ dicuntur. Exercitoria verò potius est actionis ex contractu adjectio vel qualitas, quam actio per se consistens, ex plurium sententia. quod non putant otiosum observasse. nam si inter actiones referenda sit, stricti juris naturam induere deberet, cum bonæ fidei contractibus à Iustiniano non annumeretur. ß. actionum Inst. de act. Sed si qualitas tantum & adjectio actionum est, ejus actionis, cujus adjectio est, naturam sequi debet. ut, si quis magistro navis quid vendiderit, actio ex vendito exercitoria, si commodaverit, commodati exercitoria, si mandaverit, mandati exer-
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248 John Loccenius belongs here, and especially we shall now discuss the Exercitoria Action. II. It is called the Exercitoria Action from the working or operation of a ship: the usefulness of which is so great that it pertains to the highest interests of the commonwealth. l. 1. § 20. h. t. Exercitores navis are the owners of ships, in Swedish Reedare, from Reeda or Vthreeda, as it were those who equip a ship; in Dutch and German Reeders / Schiffs=freunde, who derive gain from a ship, or to whom the proceeds and revenues of a ship come, whether they are the owners of the ship, or have hired the ship from the owners by transfer, either for a time or in perpetuity. §. 2. Inst. quod cum eo q. i. a. p. l. 1. §. 15. D. de exerc. act. In l. 1. §. 2. D. nautæ camp. st. even sailors are also called so. But the Exercitoria is rather an addition or quality of an action arising from a contract than an action existing by itself, according to the opinion of most. which they do not think it useless to note. For if it were to be included among actions, it ought to assume the nature of strict law, since under contracts of good faith it is not counted by Justinian. §. actionum Inst. de act. But if it is only a quality and addition of actions, it must follow the nature of that action of which it is an addition. Thus, if someone had sold something to the master of a ship, the action ex vendito is exercitoria; if he had lent something for use, the action of commodatum is exercitoria; if he had given a mandate, the action of mandate is exer-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 249 exercitoria competat. Hodie tamen exercitoria actio directo condici potest. Sed de hac re plura Peckius ad h. tit. nov. edit. pag. 164. & seqq. Grotius de jur. b. c. p. 2, 11, 13. Vinnius ad Peck. pag. 70. 128. 164. Bachov. disp. 8. de Action. III. Exercitores magistros navi præponunt, quibus totius navis cura mandata est; vel qui præponuntur locandis navi- bus, vel vectoribus conducendis, vel mer- cibus emendis vendendis l. 1. ß. 1. 3. D. de exerc. act. IV. Nihil autem interest, cujus sit con- ditionis aut ætatis magister navis. Sibi enim imputabit, qui præposuit l. 1. ß. 4. d. tit. Nec adeò refert an exercitores sint mares an feminæ, patresfamilias an filii- familias aut servil. 1. ß. 16. h. t. l. 7. ß. 1. de instit. act. l. 4. C. cod. modò voluntate eorum exerceant, in quorum potestate sunt d. l. 1. ß. 19. 21. h. t. l. 42. D. de furt. & pupillus authoritate tutoris d. l. 1. ß. 16. h. t. V. Illi verò qui præposuerunt magi- strum navi, tenentur exercitoria actione illis qui cum magistro navis contraxerunt. Cujus rei causa duplex est 1. qui contra- hunt cum magistro navis, non semper possunt nosse conditionem ejus (ut alias l. 19. D. de reg. jur. requirit) propter na- vigandi necessitatem, quæ non patitur ple- nius L 5
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 249 the exercitoria action lies. Today, however, the exercitoria action can be brought directly. But more on this matter in Peckius, on this title, new edition, p. 164, and following. Grotius de jur. b. c. p. 2, 11, 13. Vinnius ad Peck. p. 70, 128. 164. Bachov. disp. 8. de Action. III. Shipmasters appoint masters over the ship, to whom the care of the whole ship is entrusted; or those who are appointed for letting ships, or for hiring carriers, or for buying and selling goods, l. 1. §. 1. 3. D. de exerc. act. IV. But it makes no difference what the rank or age of the shipmaster may be. For he who appointed him will have to answer for it, l. 1. §. 4. d. tit. Nor does it much matter whether the shipmasters are male or female, heads of households or sons under paternal power, or slaves, l. 1. §. 16. h. t. l. 7. §. 1. de instit. act. l. 4. C. cod. provided that they act by the will of those in whose power they are, d. l. 1. §. 19. 21. h. t. l. 42. D. de furt. & a ward, with the authority of a guardian, d. l. 1. §. 16. h. t. V. But those who have appointed a master over a ship are liable by the exercitoria action to those who contracted with the shipmaster. The reason for this is twofold: 1. those who contract with the shipmaster cannot always know his condition (as elsewhere l. 19. D. de reg. jur. requires), because of the necessity of sailing, which does not allow full L 5
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250 Ioh. Loccenii nius disquirendi spatium & deliberandi consilium l. 1. h. t. 2. quia intuitu exercitoris, & tacito vel expresso ejus consensualiuis cum magistro navis contrahit: ideò exercitoris fides, quam hic securus est, eum meritò non fallet. l. 1. ß. 2. 5. h. t. l. 1. nauta, caup. stab. Quin si plures exerceant navem, omnium consensus in expediunda navi requiritur. Si magister navis solus, vel cum quibusdam exercitoribus, reliquis insciis, in eorum fraudem vel præjudicium receperit merces in navem, ille cum consciis parte sua privatur, ac poena arbitraria plectitur, secundum Statuta marit. Hanseat. art. 13. Non solum autem exercitores ex facto magistri navis tenentur in solidum, sed etiam ex facto ejus quem sibi substituit magister navis, etiamsi non sit idoneus: omnia enim facta magistri præstabit exercitor. l. 1. ß. 5. h. t. Sed damnum passus, habebit cum magistro navis actionem locati, si conduxerit ejus operas; vel mandati, si gratuitas operas præstet magister l. 1. ß. 18. h. t. Ex facto substituti tenentur quoque exercitores, sive sciverint & passi sint substitui, sive ignoraverint aut prohibuerint: idque propter utilitatem navigantium d. l. 1. ß. 5. h. t. Sed & si filiusfamilias aut servus præponantur navi eamve exerceant expressa
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250 Ioh. Loccenii nius. The time for inquiry and the opportunity for deliberation. counsel l. 1. h. t. 2. because, with regard to the shipowner, and by his silent or express consent he contracts with the master of the ship: therefore the shipowner’s credit, in reliance on which he is here secure, will not rightly deceive him. l. 1. ß. 2. 5. h. t. l. 1. nauta, caup. stab. Moreover, if several persons operate a ship, the consent of all is required in fitting out the vessel. If the master of the ship, alone or with some shipowners, without the knowledge of the others, to their fraud or prejudice receives merchandise into the ship, he, together with those privy to it, is deprived of his share, and is punished with arbitrary penalty, according to the Maritime Statutes of the Hanseatic League, art. 13. Not only are the shipowners bound in solidum for the act of the master of the ship, but also for the act of him whom the master of the ship has substituted for himself, even if he is not suitable; for the shipowner shall answer for all the acts of the master. l. 1. ß. 5. h. t. But one who has suffered damage will have an action against the master of the ship for hire, if he has hired his services; or for mandate, if the master renders his services gratuitously. l. 1. ß. 18. h. t. Shipowners are likewise bound by the act of the substitute, whether they knew of and allowed the substitution, or whether they were ignorant of it or forbade it: and this because of the benefit of those navigating. d. l. 1. ß. 5. h. t. But also if a son under paternal power or a slave be placed over a ship or operate it, express
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 25 I expressa voluntate pattis aut domini, in quorum sunt potestate, tunc in solidum dominus & pater tenentur, ad quos quotidianus navis quæstus pertinet ß. 2. Inst. quod cum eo l. 4. ß. 2. 3. D. de exerc. act. l. 6. C. eod. Si verò non expressè consenserint, sed solum sciverint & passi sint, tributoria vel peculiotenus tenentur. l. 1. ß. 20. 22. l. 6. h. t. Vid. quoque Peck. & Vin. in h. t. p. 84. 134 & seqq. Nihil autem interest exercitoris, mihi an alii in solidum obligetur ex contractu ejus quem ipse magistrum navi suæ præposuit, sive is servus illius sit, sive meus, sive mihi cum illo communis l. 5 h. t. & interpretes. VI. Contrahenti cum magistro navis actio adversus exercitorem competit ejus rei solum caussa, cui præpositus est magister navis, non alterius rei nomine. Extra præpositionis enim terminos, quæ dat certam legem contrahentibus, dominus non obligatur l. 1. ß. 12. h. t. Hoc latè explicatur & illustratur exemplis in d. l. 1. ß. 7. & seqq. l. ult. h. t. l. 1. 2. C. eod. Cujac. ad African. p.m. 537. 538. Creditores hic circumspectè agere eorum interest, ut in genus commissionis vel officii magistrorum & eorum conditionem, quantum tempus & locus permittit, sedulo inquirant, antequam cum eis contrahant l. 19. L 6 de
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On Maritime Law, Book III. 25 I with the express will of the father or master, under whose power they are, then the master and father are liable in solidum, to whom the daily profit of the ship belongs, § 2. Inst. quod cum eo l. 4. § 2. 3. D. de exerc. act. l. 6. C. eod. But if they have not expressly consented, but have only known of it and allowed it, they are liable tributorily or peculiarly. l. 1. §. 20. 22. l. 6. h. t. See also Peck. & Vin. in h. t. p. 84. 134 & seqq. But it makes no difference to the ship-owner whether I or another is bound in solidum by the contract of the person whom he himself has set as master over his ship, whether that person is his slave, or mine, or common to me and him l. 5 h. t. & the interpreters. VI. To one contracting with the master of a ship an action lies against the ship-owner for the sake only of that matter for which the master of the ship has been appointed, not in the name of another matter. For outside the limits of the appointment, which gives a certain rule to those contracting, the owner is not bound l. 1. §. 12. h. t. This is explained at length and illustrated by examples in d. l. 1. §. 7. & seqq. l. ult. h. t. l. 1. 2. C. eod. Cujac. ad African. p.m. 537. 538. Here creditors have an interest in acting prudently, so that they may carefully inquire into the kind of commission or office of the masters and their condition, as far as time and place permit, before they contract with them l. 19. L 6 de
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252 Ioh. Loccenii de R. I. Atque si nulla contra exercitorem actione juvari in hoc casu possint; cum ipsis tamen magistris experiri non prohibentur, si cum eis contrahentes dolo circumventi sint. Peck. comment. ad h. t. pag. 93. 94. ibid. Vinn. Quamvis autem exercitor ex eo solum teneatur, cujus nomine præposuit magistrum navi, tamen præpositio ad ea quoque extendi potest quæ sæpe incidenter & per consequentiam rei principaliter commissæ interveniunt. Vt si v.g. navis reficienda aut instruenda sit, & magister in usum navis reficiendæ aut instruendæ cui præpositus est, pecuniam fuerit mutuatus, etiamsi hoc non jusserit exercitor, tamen in exercitorem actio dabitur. l. 1. 8. h. t. quia & hoc non permissum modo verum etiam magistro commissum in consequentiam intelligitur arg. l. 2. D. de jurisd. l. 56. 62. D. de procur. Ant. Fab. in rational. Vinn. d. loc. pag. 94. 183. VII. Si verò magister navis pecuniam ab alio mutuò sumtam, vel ab exercitore acceptam, ad alendos nautas, vel ad armandam, instruendam & reficiendam navem, eò non impenderit, sed in usus suos converterit, num in exercitorem dabitur actio? Imò dabitur, si hac conditione accepit, ut in navem impende- ret;
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252 Ioh. Loccenii de R. I. And if in this case they can obtain no relief by any action against the shipmaster, nevertheless they are not prevented from proceeding against the masters themselves, if, in contracting with them, they were circumvented by fraud. Peck. comment. ad h. t. pag. 93. 94. ibid. Vinn. Although the shipowner is liable only for the person in whose name he appointed the master to the vessel, nevertheless the appointment may also extend to those matters which often arise incidentally and by consequence of the principal matter entrusted. Thus, if, for example, the ship must be repaired or fitted out, and the master, for the use of the ship to be repaired or fitted out, to which he has been appointed, has borrowed money, even though the shipowner did not order this, nevertheless an action will be given against the shipowner. l. 1. 8. h. t. because this also is understood to have been not merely permitted but also entrusted to the master by consequence. arg. l. 2. D. de jurisd. l. 56. 62. D. de procur. Ant. Fab. in rational. Vinn. d. loc. pag. 94. 183. VII. But if the master of the ship, having borrowed money from another, or received it from the shipowner, in order to feed the sailors, or to equip, fit out, and repair the ship, did not expend it for that purpose, but converted it to his own use, will an action lie against the shipowner? Indeed it will lie, if he received it on this condition, that it should be spent on the ship;
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Delire Maritimo Lib. III. 253 ret; mox verò mutavit voluntatem, aut in pretiis rerum emtorem fetellit. exercitor enim sibi imputabit, cur talem præposuerit. Sed contra erit, si magister ab initio consilium ceperit fraudandi creditoris, & specialiter non expresserit quod ad navis caussam accepit l.1. 8.8.9.10.h.t. VIII. Sed & creditorem in eo cautum esse decet, ut dispiciat an in eam caussam impendat pecuniam magister navis, in quam ab ipso mutuatus est: vel num iis impensis navis jam opus habeat, in quas ipsi credidit pecuniam, num navis in ea caussa sit, ut resici debeat. Quamvis enim creditor non necesse habeat probare, pecuniam in refectionem navis etogatam esse; nec eum oporteat ad hoc adstringi, ut ipse reficiendæ navis curam suscipiat: sic enim negotium domini geret, & immisceret se rei alienæ contra lib.36. D. de reg: jur: illud tamen ab eo exigendum, ut sciat in hoc se credere, cui rei magister sit præpositus. Quod aliter fieri non potest, quam si scierit, necessariam refectioni pecuniam esse. Etsi verò navis ea caussa sit, ut resici debeat, multo tamen major pecunia magistro navis credita fuerit, quam ad eam rem esset necessaria, non debet in solidum adversus dominum actio navis dari, l.7.h.t. Interdum etiam illud
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Delire Maritimo Lib. III. 253 ret; but later he changed his intention, or deceived the buyer in the prices of things. For the shipowner must impute it to himself, why he appointed such a man. But the contrary will be the case, if the master, from the beginning, had formed the plan of defrauding the creditor, and had not expressly stated that what he received was for the ship’s business. l.1. 8.8.9.10.h.t. VIII. But the creditor too should be careful in this matter, so that he may consider whether the shipmaster expends the money for that purpose for which he borrowed it from him; or whether the ship already needs those expenses for which he trusted him with the money; whether the ship is in such a condition that it ought to be repaired. For although the creditor need not prove that the money was expended on the repair of the ship; nor ought he to be compelled to this, that he himself undertake the care of repairing the ship: for thus he would be managing another’s business, and would interfere in another’s affair, contrary to lib. 36. D. de reg: jur: nevertheless this much must be required of him, namely, that he know that he is lending for this purpose for which the master is appointed. Which cannot otherwise be done than if he knows that the money is necessary for the repair. And although the ship is in such a condition that it ought to be repaired, yet if a much larger sum of money had been lent to the shipmaster than would be necessary for that purpose, the action in full ought not to be granted against the owner of the ship, l.7.h.t. Sometimes also that
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254 Ioh. Loccenii illud in æstimationem venit, an in eo loco pecunia credita sit, in quo id propter quod credebatur, comparari potuerit. Quid enim si quis ad velum emendum in eo loco crediderit pecuniam, ubi velum compara- rari non potest? quod tamen creditor scire potuit aut debuit. In summa, diligentiam aliquam in ea re creditor præstare debet, si utiliter hic agere velit. d. l. 7. ß. 1. 2. h. t. Hanc autem totam legem observandam rectè monet Vinnius ob fraudes magistrocum navis & institorum, ne per ingentes pecunias, quas accepisse se mutuò dixerint, in causam navis vel commercii, quod absentis domini est, redigatur bona pars negociationis ad nihilum, ditatis nimirum in domini caput ac mortem fraudulentis ministris. Vinn: ad h. t. pag: 183. in fin. IX. Si plures sint magistri navis, quod tamen rarò fit, & quidem divilis sint officiis, tunc pro distincto cujusque officio exercitor obligabitur l. 1. ß. 13. h. t. Si non divisis officiis, quod cum uno gestum erit, obligabit exercitorem in solidum. d. l. l. 6. ß. 1. eod. Si vero sic præposuit exercitor, ut plerumque solet, ne quid alter sine altero, sive sit magister navis sive adjunctus, gerat, creditor qui contra legem præpositionis (quam scivit, aut, si diligentiùs inquirat, scire potuit) cum uno con- traxit
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254 Io. Loccenius This comes into consideration, whether in that place the money was lent where that for the sake of which it was lent could be procured. For what if someone should have lent money for buying a sail in a place where a sail cannot be obtained? which, however, the creditor could have known or ought to have known. In short, the creditor ought to exercise some diligence in the matter if he wishes to proceed effectively here. d. l. 7. §. 1. 2. h. t. But Vinnius rightly advises that the whole of this law is to be observed on account of the frauds of ship-masters and agents, lest by huge sums of money, which they have said they received as a loan, in the matter of the ship or of trade, which belongs to an absent owner, a large part of the business be reduced to nothing, the fraudulent servants being enriched, as it were, at the expense and death of the owner. Vinn.: ad h. t. p. 183. in fin. IX. If there are several ship-masters, which, however, happens rarely, and indeed their offices are divided, then the owner will be bound according to the distinct office of each one. l. 1. §. 13. h. t. If the offices are not divided, that which is done with one will bind the owner in full. d. l. l. 6. §. 1. eod. But if the owner has appointed them in such a way, as is usually the case, that nothing is to be done by one without the other, whether he be ship-master or assistant, the creditor who contracted with one contrary to the law of the appointment (which he knew, or, if he inquire more diligently, could have known)
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Delure Maritimo. Lib. III. 255 traxit, sibi imputabit l. 1. ß. 14. D. h. t. Vinn: d. loc. p. 111. 112. Si verò plures per se navem exerceant, & omnes simul contraxerint, non in solidum singuli actio- ne propria ex contractu suo tenentur, sed tantum pro ea parte quam in navi habent: non enim invicem sui magistri videntur. l. 4.h. t.l. ult: ß. 5. D. naut: camp: stab. Sed si plures navem exercentes unum de nume- ro suo magistrum fecerint, hujus nomine omnes in solidum actione exercitoria po- terunt conveniri. d. l. 4. ß. 1. Si unus ex ipsis exercitoribus cum communi navis magistro contraxerit, agere cum reliquis exercitoribus poterit pro ea parte quam habet in navi l. 5. ß. 2. h. t. Si plures na- ven exercentes ex contractu magistri con- veliantur, cum quolibet eorum actione exercitoria in solidum agi potest l. 1. ß. 2. 5. h. t. Si verò plures ex contractu suo pro- prio conveniantur, quatenus navem per se exercent, singuli ex actione propria tenebuntur, non exercitoria. Eadem ra- tio est, si cum uno ex pluribus navem per se exercentibus contractum sit. arg. l. 4. h. t. Si verò cæteri quid nomine coexercitoris aut magistri navis præstiterint, id ab eo repetent actione societatis aut communi dividundo l. 3. h. t. l. 13. ß. ult. D. de inst: act: Vinn: in Peck, ad h. sit. p. 158. 160. X. Quam-
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Delure Maritimo. Lib. III. 255 will be imputed to himself, l. 1. §. 14. D. h. t. Vinn: d. loc. p. 111. 112. If however several persons manage a ship on their own account, and all have contracted together, they are not each bound in solidum by their own action arising from their contract, but only for that part which they have in the ship: for they are not regarded as being one another’s masters. l. 4. h. t. l. ult: §. 5. D. naut: camp: stab. But if several persons managing a ship appoint one of their number as master, they may all be sued in solidum in the exercitoria action in his name. d. l. 4. §. 1. If one of the said managers contracts with the common master of the ship, he may sue the others of the managers for that part which he has in the ship l. 5. §. 2. h. t. If several persons managing a ship are sued on the contract of the master, they can be sued in solidum by the exercitoria action against each of them l. 1. §. 2. 5. h. t. But if several are sued on their own contract, so far as they manage the ship on their own account, each will be liable by his own action, not by the exercitoria. The same reason applies if a contract has been made with one of several persons managing the ship on their own account. arg. l. 4. h. t. But if the others have made any expenditure in the name of the co-manager or of the master of the ship, they will recover it from him by the action on partnership or by the action for partition of common property l. 3. h. t. l. 13. §. ult. D. de inst: act: Vinn: in Peck, ad h. sit. p. 158. 160. X. Quam-
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256 Ioh. Loccenii. X. Quamvis autem jure R. ex facto magistri exercitor in solidum teneatur: ut ad quem emolumentum præpositionis redit, ad eundem onus obligationis redeat arg:l. 10. de reg: jur. & ne in plures adversarios destringatur creditor, qui cum uno contraxit l.2.h.t. quod esse iniquum l.27. ß.8. D. de pecul: dicitur; attamen Grotius de jure bell:e.p.2, 11, 13. & Vinnius ad Peck in comment. ad LL. nautic: h.t. pag. 155. negant hoc naturali æquitati convenire, quæ satis habet, si pro suis singuli partibus convenientur. Nec publicè utile esse existimant: absterreri enim homines ab exercendis navibus, si metuant ne ex facto magistri quasi in infinitum teneantur. Vnde apud Hollandos illam legem non observari notant. Quin & constitutum esse, ne exercitoria etiam universi amplius teneantur, quam ad æstimationem navis & eorum quæ in navi sunt. XI. Etiamsi non detur actio in exercitorem, si cum quolibet nautarum actum sit quia non exercitor permittit cum eis contrahi, velut cum magistro l.1.ß.2.h.t. ex delicto, tamen nautarum datur actio quasi ex maleficio in exercitorem: curare enim debet, quantum in ipso est, ut culpa & dolo careant: d. l.1.ß.2. cum ipse tales suo periculo adhibuer it l.7. D. nauti : camp: stab: Ante-
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256 Ioh. Loccenii. X. Although by the law of Rhodes, from the fact of the master the ship-owner is bound in solidum: so that to whom the benefit of the undertaking accrues, to the same person the burden of the obligation should return, arg: l. 10. de reg: jur. & so that the creditor, who contracted with one person, is not drawn against several adversaries l.2.h.t. which is said to be unjust l.27. ß.8. D. de pecul:; nevertheless Grotius de jure bell:e.p.2, 11, 13. & Vinnius ad Peck in comment. ad LL. nautic: h.t. pag. 155. deny that this accords with natural equity, which is content enough if each be sued for his own share. Nor do they think it useful to the public: for men are deterred from engaging in shipping if they fear that for the master’s act they may be liable almost without limit. Hence they note that among the Dutch that law is not observed. Indeed, it has also been established that the ship-owners themselves are not liable beyond the value of the ship and of what is in the ship. XI. Even if no action be granted against the ship-owner when a claim has been brought against any of the sailors, because it is not the ship-owner who permits contracts to be made with them, as with the master l.1.ß.2.h.t. from delict, nevertheless there is given against the ship-owner an action against the sailors as if from misconduct: for he ought to take care, as far as lies in him, that they be free from fault and fraud: d. l.1.ß.2. since he has employed such persons at his own risk l.7. D. nauti : camp: stab: Ante-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 257 Antequam verò adhiberet alienos, explorare eum oportebat, cujus fidei & innocentiæ essent. quod si non fecerit, culpæ cujusdam nomine tenetur. Aliquatenus enim culpæ reus est, qui opera malorum hominum utitur. ß. ult. Inst: de oblig: ex quas: del. qua de re in Cap. seqq plura. In suis autem venia dignus esse videtur, si tales quales ad instruendam navem adhibuerit. Vnde servorum suorum nomine noxali duntaxat tenetur l. 7. ß. 4. D. naut:c. st. l. un: ß. 5. D. furti advers.n. c. st. l. 42. D. de furt. l. 19. ß. 2. De noxal. act. vel ipsi ex suo delicto tenentur, si domino ignorante deliquerint. Alienorum nomine dominus tenetur actione in factum l. 3. ß. 1. D. Nautæ camp: st: ß. ult: Inst: de oblig: ex quas: del. Si verò nautæ quid damni inter se dederint, hoc ad exercitorem non pertinet, sed ad ipsos l. 7. ß 2. naut:c. st. Si exercitor ipse damnum dederit, ex vero delicto obligatur. arg: ß. 3. Inst. de oblig. ex quas: del. XII. Exercitor quoque vectorum factum præstare dicitur, non intuitu delicti eorum l. un: Furti adv: naut: c. st. Sed ex convento, nomine illatorum in navem. l. 1. ß. 8. in fin: Naut: c. st. Pac. cent. 7. conciliat: q. 57. aut quæ in litore perierint; si tamen receperit vel per se vel per magistrum
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 257 Before he employed others, however, he ought to ascertain what kind of fidelity and innocence they possessed; and if he did not do this, he is held liable under a certain degree of fault. For in some measure he is guilty of fault who makes use of the work of bad men. § ult. Inst. de oblig: ex quas: del. on which matter more in the following chapter. But in the case of his own people he seems worthy of pardon, if he employed such as were fit for the fitting out of the ship. Hence, in the name of his own servants, he is liable only noxally. l. 7. §. 4. D. naut:c. st. l. un: §. 5. D. furti advers.n. c. st. l. 42. D. de furt. l. 19. §. 2. De noxal. act. or they themselves are liable from their own wrongdoing, if they committed the offense without the master’s knowledge. The master is liable in the name of others by an action in factum l. 3. §. 1. D. Nautæ camp: st: §. ult: Inst: de oblig: ex quas: del. But if the sailors caused damage among themselves, this does not concern the shipowner, but them personally l. 7. § 2. naut:c. st. If the shipowner himself caused damage, he is bound from his own fault. arg: §. 3. Inst. de oblig. ex quas: del. XII. The shipowner is also said to answer for the acts of passengers, not with regard to their wrongdoing l. un: Furti adv: naut: c. st. But by agreement, in the name of those things brought into the ship l. 1. §. 8. in fin: Naut: c. st. Pac. cent. 7. conciliat: q. 57. or those which perished on the shore; provided, however, that he received them either by himself or through the master
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258 Ioh. Loccenii strum navis, sive res nostræ sive alienæ sint; si tamen nostra intersit salvas esse, ut pignus l.1. ß.2. l.3. D. naut: caup: stab. l.I. ß.7. eod. Et quamvis nauta vel exercitor non principaliter mercedem accipiat pro custodia, sed pro ipsis vectoribus & mercibus trajiciendis, tamen custodiæ nomine ex locato tenetur, vel actione de recepto, atque sic furti damnive in nave, non extra eam, commissi nomine obligatur. l.5. l.7. Naut: caup. st. aut si receperit salvas res fore, recipiendo periculum custodiæ subit l. un: D. furti adv: naut. ß.4. Sed si prædixerit nauclerus vel exercitor, ut unusquisque vectorum res suas servet, neque damnum se præstiturum, illique consenserint prædictioni sive expressè sive tacitè, remanendo in navi, nauta vel exercitor non convenitur l.7. Naut. c. st. Si verò contradixerint, & nauta eos in navi remanere patiatur, tenebitur. Vinn. ind. tit. pag. 60. Nec de recepto ex contractu remigis aut mesonautæ aliquid recipientium, ut magistri navis, tenetur; nisi ipse alicui eorum quid committi expressè jusserit l.1. ß.2. D. Naut: c. st. Hic tamen statuta & mores cujusque regionis spectandos, rectè monet Vinnius ad h. l. pag. 9. Nec damnum fatale illatarum navi mercium præstabit exercitor, si quid nau-
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258 Ioh. Loccenii the burden of the ship, whether the goods be ours or another’s, if nevertheless it concerns us that they be safe, as in the case of a pledge. l.1. §.2. l.3. D. naut: caup: stab. l.I. §.7. eod. And although the sailor or owner of the vessel does not principally receive payment for custody, but for transporting the passengers and the goods, nevertheless, in the name of custody he is bound under the contract of hiring, or by the action de recepto, and thus he is liable for theft or damage committed in the ship, not outside it. l.5. l.7. Naut: caup. st. or if he has received the goods on condition that they shall be safe, by receiving them he assumes the risk of custody l. un: D. furti adv: naut. §.4. But if the shipmaster or owner of the vessel has warned that each of the passengers should keep his own goods, and that he would not be liable for any loss, and they have agreed to the warning, either expressly or by implication, by remaining in the ship, the sailor or owner is not sued. l.7. Naut. c. st. But if they objected, and the sailor allows them to remain in the ship, he will be liable. Vinn. ind. tit. pag. 60. Nor is anything owed under the contract de recepto by a rower or mesonauta receiving anything, such as the ship’s master, unless he himself expressly ordered that something be entrusted to any of them l.1. §.2. D. Naut: c. st. Here however Vinnius rightly notes that the statutes and customs of each region are to be considered in this matter, ad h. l. pag. 9. Nor will the owner of the vessel be liable for the accidental loss of merchandise brought onto the ship, if anything nau-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 259 nausfragio aut per vim piratarum perierit l. 3. ß. 1. d. t. XIII. Si verò mandatarius sit spoliatus à prædonibus, aut naufragio quid admi- serit, num imputabit mandanti aut ab eo repetet? Hæc quæstio ex occasione est di- gna ventilari. Lex Inter causas 26. ß. 6. D. mandati & Synopsis Basil. 14. tit. 1. lib. 3 5. tit. 1. c. 5. ß. 2. repetere posse negant: quia hæc magis casui quam mandato imputanda sint. Itaq[ue] hic locum non habebit regula, Mandatario suum officium non oportere esse damnosum: hoc enim damnum non ex occasione mandati exsequendi, sed vi majore aut fortuitò ipsi accidit d. l. 26. & Rittersbus. ad leg. 23. de reg. jur. pag. m. 85. Sic vice versâ casus fortuitus à mandatario non præstatur mandatori; nisi ad hoc se obligarit l. 39. mandati. quod enim absque culpa accidit, à nullo præstatur. Quod autem Accursius ad lib. 26. ß. 6. ff. mand. notat. d. paragraphum de curialitate (ut loquitur) non debere servi, hoc magis de æquitate, vel remissione quam necessitate juris audiendum est; nisi statutum aut mores sint in contrarium. XIV. Datur electio creditori, utrum magistrum an exercitorem convenire velit l. 1. ß. 17. l. 5. ß. 1. D. de exerc. act. Et in potestate ejus, cui subrepta res in navi, est,
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On Maritime Law, Book III. 259 if he has perished in shipwreck or by force of pirates l. 3. §. 1. d. t. XIII. But if the agent has been stripped by pirates, or has suffered some loss by shipwreck, shall he charge it to the principal or recover it from him? This question deserves to be discussed on the occasion. The law Inter causas 26. §. 6. D. mandati, and Synopsis Basil. 14. tit. 1. lib. 3 5. tit. 1. c. 5. §. 2. deny that it can be recovered: because these things are to be attributed more to chance than to the mandate. Accordingly, the rule will not apply here, that the agent ought not to suffer loss in his office; for this loss happened not through the occasion of executing the mandate, but by greater force or by accident to himself d. l. 26. & Rittersbus. ad leg. 23. de reg. jur. p. m. 85. Thus, conversely, a fortuitous event is not borne by the agent for the principal; unless he has bound himself to this l. 39. mandati. for what happens without fault is borne by no one. What Accursius notes on lib. 26. §. 6. ff. mand. namely that the said paragraph about courtesy (as he puts it) ought not to be for a servant, is to be understood more as a matter of equity or remission than of necessity of law; unless a statute or custom is to the contrary. XIV. The creditor is given the choice whether he wishes to proceed against the master or the operator l. 1. §. 17. l. 5. §. 1. D. de exerc. act. And it is in the power of him in whose ship a thing has been stolen,
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260 Ioh. Loccenti est, utrum malit cum exercitore a n sure ipso experiri l. un: 3. D. Furti adr. naut. Si verò unum semel elegerit, cum altero agere non potest, etsi nihi aut minus, quam ei debebatur, ab uno acceperit. unius enim actionis electione cæteræ consumuntur vid: hic Vinn. p. 149. 1 50. Si verò quid solutum sit sive ab exercitore sive magistro ipso jure minuitur obligatio. nam & alius pro me solvendo me liberat l. 1. 5. 24. D. de exerc. act. XV. Vt autem creditori contra magistrum navis vel exercitorem competit actio, ita non datur contraria actio exercitori contra creditorem: quia non indiget eodem auxilio; sed aut ex locato cum magistro navis, si mercede ejus operam conduxit, aut si gratuitam operam exercitori præstet, mandati agere potest l. 1. 5. sed ex contrario D. de exerc. act. & h. cap. sup. 5. 5. aliquando tamen ob ministerium annonæ extra ordinem juvatur exercitor d. l. 1. 5. 18. h. 2. i. c. per modum restitutionis in integrum, si magister non sit solvendo, ut explicat Bachovius ad V Vesenb. parat. h. tit. numer. 6. XVI. Hæc actio hæredi & in hæredem datur l. 4. 4. D. de ex. act. quia continet rei persecutionem l. 3. 5. 4. D. naut: c. 8. Sed & in patrem & dominum defuncti filii & servi
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260 Ioh. Loccenti it is a question whether he prefers to proceed against the shipmaster himself with the action n sure l. un: 3. D. Furti adr. naut. But if he has once chosen one of them, he cannot proceed against the other, even if he has received nothing, or less than was due, from the one. for by the choice of one action the others are extinguished: see here Vinn. p. 149. 150. If, however, something has been paid, whether by the shipowner or by the master himself, the obligation is diminished by operation of law. for and another, by paying for me, releases me l. 1. 5. 24. D. de exerc. act. XV. But as the creditor is entitled to an action against the master of the ship or the shipowner, so no contrary action is given to the shipowner against the creditor: because he does not need the same assistance; but either by hire with the master of the ship, if he has engaged his services for wages, or, if he renders his services gratuitously to the shipowner, he can sue on mandate l. 1. 5. sed ex contrario D. de exerc. act. & h. cap. sup. 5. 5. sometimes, however, on account of the service of the grain-supply the shipowner is aided extra ordinem d. l. 1. 5. 18. h. 2. i. c. by way of restitutio in integrum, if the master is not solvent, as Bachovius explains ad V Vesenb. parat. h. tit. number 6. XVI. This action is also given to and against the heir l. 4. 4. D. de ex. act. because it contains the pursuit of the thing l. 3. 5. 4. D. naut: c. 8. But also against the father and the master of a deceased son and slave
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CAP. VIII. De Delictis in navi. I. Obligatio ex delictis. II. De furto in navi. III. Magister navis non plenè restituens receptæ, quomodo inde teneatur. IV. Si resnauta commissa casu fortuito perierit, num debitoris an creditoris sit periculum. V. Quid propriè raptum ex naufragio vel nave expugnata dicatur, quid non. VI. Quinam rapti actione teneantur, & quæ ejus poena. VII. Non solum vim à bonis navis sed & personis abstinendam esse. VIII. De damno dato per dolum vel culpam magistri navis, sique naufragio causam dederit, remissivè. IX. Si merces alio devehendæ à prædonibus aut piratis direpta sint, num inde teneatur magister navis. X. Si magister navis falsis insignibus utens causam damno dederit. XI. Si
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CHAPTER VIII. Of Crimes on a Ship. I. Obligation arising from crimes. II. Of theft on a ship. III. How the shipmaster is liable if he does not fully restore what was received. IV. If a thing entrusted to a sailor is lost by accident, whether the risk belongs to the debtor or the creditor. V. What is properly called plunder from a shipwreck or from a ship taken by assault, and what is not. VI. Who are liable to the action for plunder, and what is its penalty. VII. That violence must be kept not only from the goods of the ship but also from persons. VIII. Of damage caused by the fraud or fault of the shipmaster, if he has given occasion to shipwreck, alternatively. IX. If goods to be conveyed elsewhere are seized by freebooters or pirates, whether the shipmaster is liable therefor. X. If the shipmaster has caused damage by using false insignia. XI. If
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262 Ioh. Loccenii XI. Si navis aliam navem incurrendo, ei damnum dederit aut eam depresserit quomodo æstimetur. XII. Navis vi ventorum in funes anchorarum impulsa. XIII. Si navis perforatasit. XIV. Damnum quod nautæ inter se dederunt. XV. Malum scandentis casus et damni æstimatio. XVI. De injuriis innavi. XVII. Disciplina nautica, modus in ea non excedendus. XVIII. Stringentis cultrum aut gladium in alium poena. XIX. Contumaciæ, factionis et tumultus poena. XX. De quasi maleficiis. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. De homicidio et ejus variis casibus in navi accidentibus, aliquque delictis pub. I. Obligationem ex contractu, & quæ inde nascuntur actiones earumque qualitates, nunc sequitur obligatio ex delictis; qualia sunt furtum, rapina, vis, damnum, injuria, quasi maleficium; homicidium & alia publica delicta: quæ, quantum nostro serviunt instituto, nunc discutiemus. II. Si
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262 Ioh. Loccenii XI. If a ship, by running into another ship, has caused it damage or sunk it, how it is to be estimated. XII. A ship driven by the force of winds against the anchor cables. XIII. If a ship has been pierced through. XIV. Damage which sailors have inflicted on one another. XV. The risk of one climbing up, and the assessment of damage. XVI. Concerning injuries in a ship. XVII. Naval discipline, and the limit not to be exceeded in it. XVIII. The punishment for brandishing a knife or sword against another. XIX. The punishment for contumacy, faction, and riot. XX. Concerning quasi-offenses. XXI. XXII. XXIII. XXIV. Concerning homicide and its various cases occurring on a ship, and certain public offenses. I. After the obligation arising from contract, and the actions arising from it and their qualities, there now follows the obligation arising from delicts; such as theft, robbery, violence, damage, injury, quasi-offense, homicide, and other public offenses: which, so far as they serve our purpose, we shall now examine. II. If
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 263 II. Si res, quam magister navis recepit salvam fore, furto sit ablata, inde tenebitur ille: quia semel periculum rei suscepit arg:l.3. D. nautæ caup: stab: l.14. in fin. D. de furt. Aliud vero dicendum, si inter magistrum navis & vectores convenerit, ut quisque res suas ipse custodiat: hic enim actio contra magistrum navis propter pactum cessat. l.27. D. de reg: jur: & in eam Faber. p.m. 151. plura sup: hom: lib: cap.7. §.12. III. Si magister navis recipiens res ad me perferendas, non tantum restituat, quantum ei commissum est, omnino inde tenebitur. Sed hic prius constare debet, quantum ejus fidei sit commissum: quod vel testibus probandum esse, vel expressa designatione, alibi dictum (in Synops. jur. Diss. 28.q.2.) Sed Dd. negant necesse esse expresse adsignari res nautæ, sed sufficere res in navem immissas esse, ut ex contractu etiam tacito de recepto, & exacta custodia teneatur magister navis. Quanquam hoc non aliter procedit, quam si sciverit aut scire debuerit & potuerit esse immissas. Gudelin. lib.3. de jure noviss. c.10. ceterum si reus negaverit tot & tantas res immissas esse, quot & quantas adfirmat actor, & habeat quidem quasdam hujus reiprobationes, sed ancipites nec satis ido- neas,
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On Maritime Law, Book III, 263 II. If a thing which the master of the ship received to be safely carried away is stolen, he shall be liable for it: because he once undertook the risk of the thing. Arg.: l. 3. D. nautæ caup: stab: l. 14. in fin. D. de furt. But otherwise it must be said, if it has been agreed between the master of the ship and the passengers that each shall keep his own goods himself: for in that case the action against the master of the ship ceases by reason of the pact. l. 27. D. de reg: jur: & in eam Faber. p.m. 151. plura sup: hom: lib: cap. 7. §. 12. III. If the master of the ship, receiving goods to be carried to me, does not restore as much as was committed to him, he shall in every case be liable. But it must first be established here how much was entrusted to his good faith: which must either be proved by witnesses, or by express designation, as has been said elsewhere (in Synops. jur. Diss. 28. q. 2.) But the doctors deny that it is necessary for the goods to be expressly assigned to the sailor; rather, it is enough that the goods were put aboard the ship, so that even by a tacit contract of receipt, and by strict custody, the master of the ship is bound. Although this does not proceed otherwise than if he knew, or ought and could have known, that they had been put aboard. Gudelin. lib. 3. de jure noviss. c. 10. Otherwise, if the defendant denies that so many and so great goods were put aboard as the plaintiff asserts, and indeed has certain objections against this matter, but they are doubtful and not sufficiently reliable,
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264 Ioh. Loccenii neas, hic ut in re dubia juramento locus erit l. 31. de jureiur. Sed cui deferendum juramentum, reo an actori? Reus, si bonæ famæ sit, ad delationem actoris se juramento liberabit à præsumtione rerum subductarum aut male custoditarum. Si verò adsit suspicio perjurii in reo, fallere & mentiri solito, aut si sit infamis atque intestabilis, aut in probatione juratoria deficiat; actori, si sit homo bonæ fidei & famæ, deferendum juramentu[m] Beust. de jurejur. p. m. 403. 404. seq. & sic à reo tantum restituendum, quantum juraverit sibi ablatum actor. Ea videtur esse mens Theoderici Gothorum Regis in Edicto ß. 119. quæ sic habet: Si quid de taberna, nave vel stabulo perierit, ab his qui locis talibus præsunt, vel qui in his negotiantur, repetendum est, ita ut præstent sacramenta de conscientia sua suorumque: & si hoc fecerint, nihil cogantur exsolvere; aut certè quantum petitor juraverit se in eo loco perdidisse, restituant. In Codice L.L. antiquarum editionis Lindenbrogianæ circa initium hujus Edicti vox nave est omissa. sed hanc ei restituendam esse patet ex inscriptione Edicti: Si quid (ita emend. pro quis) de taberna, nave aut stabulo perierit. Si verò postea deprehendatur ipse magister navis res quasdam supressisse & abstulisse, aut in usus suos convertisse,
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264 Ioh. Loccenius inasmuch as, in a doubtful matter, here the place for oath will be, l. 31 de jureiur. But to whom is the oath to be deferred, to the defendant or to the plaintiff? The defendant, if he be of good repute, will free himself by oath, at the plaintiff’s allegation, from the presumption of things removed or badly guarded. But if there be suspicion of perjury in the defendant, one accustomed to deceive and lie, or if he be infamous and not admissible as a witness, or if he fail in proof by oath; then the oath is to be deferred to the plaintiff, if he be a man of good faith and reputation, Beust. de jurejur. p. m. 403. 404. seq. and thus from the defendant is to be restored only so much as the plaintiff shall have sworn was taken from him. This seems to be the meaning of Theoderic, King of the Goths, in Edict §. 119, which runs thus: If anything from an inn, ship, or stable shall have been lost, it is to be demanded back from those who preside over such places, or who conduct business in them, so that they furnish oaths concerning their own consciousness and that of their people; and if they do this, they are to be compelled to pay nothing; or at least let them restore as much as the claimant shall have sworn he lost in that place. In the Codex L.L. of the old Lindenbrogian edition, around the beginning of this Edict, the word ship is omitted; but that it should be restored there is clear from the inscription of the Edict: Si quid (thus emended for quis) de taberna, nave aut stabulo perierit. But if later the master of the ship himself is discovered to have concealed and carried off certain things, or converted them to his own use,
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 265 vertisse, furti reus erit arg. l. 7. Cod. de furt. c. 1. 2. jur. Suet. eod. In Statutis Lub. 4, 1, 7. sic habetur: Nautæ, aurigæ & similes personæ, quibus res transportandæ creduntur, iis justo loco non traditis, sed ex parte abnegatis, cum aliud compertum fuerit, ut fures plectuntor. Conferantur quoque Statuta Prussica lib. 4. tit. 19. artic. 1. ß. 9. 10. Recepta, quorum dominus ignoratur, magistratui loci, ubi exonerat navem, tradi jubentur. ibid. Sed magistri navis pecuniam ab amicis accipientes, ut illam aliis in transmarino loco degentibus persolverent, quâ illi non animo furandi, sed necessitatis causa in usus suos converterunt, reddere parati simulac potuerint, furti poenæ non erunt obnoxii: quia non habuerunt affectum furandi. vid. Mev. in d. l. jur. Lub. n. 8. 9. Carp. Pract. crim. p. 2. q. 85. n. 87. & seqq. Si vero absque eorum culpa res, quam receperunt, pereat, tamen tenentur de recepto; nisi quid damno fatali contingat. l. 3. ß. 1. D. naut. caus. stab. Si vero solvendo sint magistri navis, furti actio contra fures eis dabitur l. 14. ß. 17. D. de furt. Plura de furto in navi exstant in l. 20. ß. 5. D. Furt. adv. naut. l. 47. Dig. tit. 5. IV. Si res aut pecuniæ nautæ commissæ naufragio perierint, aut per vim piratarum raptæ sint, æquum est magistro navis exceptionem dari, nec eum ad hoc damnum M casu
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 265 turned aside, he will be liable for theft, arg. l. 7. Cod. de furt. c. 1. 2. jur. Suet. eod. In the Statutes of Lübeck 4, 1, 7, it is thus stated: Seamen, carters, and similar persons, to whom things are entrusted for transport, if they are not delivered at the proper place, but are partly denied, and it is found out otherwise, are to be punished as thieves. Compare also the Prussian Statutes lib. 4. tit. 19. artic. 1. ß. 9. 10. Things received, whose owner is unknown, are ordered to be handed over to the magistrate of the place where the ship is unloaded. ibid. But shipmasters who receive money from friends, in order that they may pay it to others dwelling in a transmarine place, and who convert it to their own use, not with the intent of stealing, but from necessity, being ready to return it as soon as they are able, are not liable to the punishment of theft: because they did not have the intent of stealing. vid. Mev. in d. l. jur. Lub. n. 8. 9. Carp. Pract. crim. p. 2. q. 85. n. 87. & seqq. But if, without any fault on their part, the thing they received is lost, they are nevertheless liable as to the thing received; unless something by fatal loss occurs. l. 3. ß. 1. D. naut. caus. stab. But if the shipmasters are solvent, an action for theft against the thieves shall be given to them l. 14. ß. 17. D. de furt. More on theft in a ship is found in l. 20. ß. 5. D. Furt. adv. naut. l. 47. Dig. tit. 5. IV. If things or money entrusted to the seaman have perished in shipwreck, or have been carried off by force of pirates, it is equitable that an exception be given to the shipmaster, and that he should not be held liable for this loss in such a case
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266 Ioh. Loccenii casu datum obligari d l.3. 1. naut.c. st. l.23. de reg. jur. cujus ergo hoc periculum & damnum erit, an debitoris vel creditoris? Communiter statuitur debitoris esse periculum, quem casus fortuiti non liberant ab ære alieno arg l.1 1. Cod. si cert. pet. cap. 3 5. de jure edif. L L prov. Sued. Aliud vero dicendum, si ipse creditor debitorem jusserit per hunc nautam transmittere pecuniam: vel amico scripserit, ut exigeret à suo debitore pecuniam sibique mitteret: is verò tradiderit nautæ qui spoliatus est à prædonibus, aut naufragio perdidit, hoc casu damnu[m] est creditoris, & liberatur debitor arg. l. 10. 1. D. commod. Cravett. consil. 247 n.2. & seqq. V. Raptum ex naufragio vel nave expugnata propriè dicitur, quod eo tempore & loco quo naufragium fit, raptum est l.1. 5 l.2.3. D. de incend. ruin. nauf. & quando navis in prælio expugnatur ab hostibus vel piratis, quando spoliatur, mergitur, dissolvitur aut pertunditur, aut funes ejus præciduntur, aut vela co[n]scinduntur, aut anchoræ involantur de maril. 3. 1. l.6. D. d. ii. de inc. r. nauf. nav. r. exp In primis hic dolus malus attenditur, atq[ue] si vis adhibita sit: rapi enim sine vi non potest, l.3 3.5. h. t. Si quis ergo recepit ignarus, aut ad hoc, ut custodiat & salvum faciat vero domino, qui amisit; non solum extra noxiam, sed & laude dignus est præ-
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266 Ioh. Loccenii In the case of an obligation arising from chance, d. l. 3. 1. naut. c. st. l. 23. de reg. jur., whose risk and loss is this to be, that of the debtor or of the creditor? It is commonly held that the risk belongs to the debtor, whom accidental events do not release from debt, arg. l. 1. 1. Cod. si cert. pet. cap. 3 § 5. de jure edif. L L prov. Sued. But another answer is to be given if the creditor himself ordered the debtor to send money by this mariner; or wrote to a friend to collect the money from his debtor and send it to him; if he then delivered it to a mariner who was robbed by pirates, or lost it in a shipwreck, in this case the loss is the creditor’s, and the debtor is discharged, arg. l. 10. 1. D. commod. Cravett. consil. 247 n. 2. & seqq. V. Raptum ex naufragio vel nave expugnata properly means what was carried off at the very time and place where the shipwreck occurs, l. 1. 5 l. 2. 3. D. de incend. ruin. nauf. & when a ship is taken in battle by enemies or pirates, when it is plundered, sunk, broken up, or pierced, or its ropes are cut, or its sails torn, or its anchors hauled away, de maril. 3. 1. l. 6. D. d. ii. de inc. r. nauf. nav. r. exp. Above all, malicious intent is considered here, and also if force has been used; for plundering cannot take place without force, l. 3 § 3. 5. h. t. If therefore someone received it in ignorance, or for the purpose of guarding it and preserving it for the true owner who had lost it; then not only is he free from blame, but he is also worthy of praise præ-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III 267 præmioque laboris honesto pro collectis bonis naufragis arg. l. 7. de serv. exp. Scholæ. Exa. jur. In jure Suedico præmium jubetur promi ex bonis collectis, & determinari arbitrio domini & bonorum virorum c. 17. de furt. LL. civit. 37. LL. prov. VI. Non solum qui rapuit, sed & qui abstulit, amovit, damnum dedit, vel recepit, actione rapti tenetur l. 3. ß. 4. d. tit. Sed &c qui invito domino navem usurpat, rapti vel furti tenetur in jure nostro c. ult. de jur. adif. LL. prov. De poena rapti ex naufragio vel nave, adiri potest lex 3. ß. 8. l. 4. s. 7. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. r. n. e. & quæ sup. notavi lib. 1. c. 7. ß. 16. quæque in diversis populorum Statutis de poena rapinæ exstant. VII. Nulla vis fiet vel bonis vectorum & nautarum, vel ipsis si facta sit, severè punietur l. 1. D. ad leg. Iul. de vi pri. ß. 2. Illicitè in portu vectigalis nomine extortum, cum altero tanto passis injuriam exsolvi jubetur in jure R. & authores violentiæ præter poenam tripli extra ordinem plectr. alterum enim utilitas privatorum, alterum vigor disciplinæ pub. postulat l. 9. ß 5. D. de pub. vect. De vi pub. non tenetur, qui arma navigationis causa coegit l. 1. D: ad. leg. Iu. de vi. publ. VIII Si quid dolo aut culpa non fecerit, aut fecerit, quod non debuit magister navis, atque sic damnum mercibus dederit, inde M 2
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III 267 and a worthy reward for labor for the goods collected from shipwrecked property arg. l. 7. de serv. exp. Scholæ. Exa. jur. In Swedish law a reward is ordered to be paid out of the goods collected, and to be determined by the discretion of the lord and of good men c. 17. de furt. LL. civit. 37. LL. prov. VI. Not only he who has seized, but also he who has taken away, removed, caused loss, or received, is liable to the action of robbery l. 3. ß. 4. d. tit. Sed &c he who uses a ship without the owner’s consent is liable for robbery or theft in our law c. ult. de jur. adif. LL. prov. On the punishment for robbery from a shipwreck or from a ship, one may consult law 3. ß. 8. l. 4. s. 7. D. de inc. ruin. naufr. r. n. e. & what I noted above lib. 1. c. 7. ß. 16. and what is found in the various statutes of peoples regarding the punishment of plunder. VII. No violence shall be done either to the goods of passengers and sailors, or to the persons themselves; if it is done, it shall be severely punished l. 1. D. ad leg. Iul. de vi pri. ß. 2. What is unlawfully extorted in the harbor in the name of a duty is ordered to be compensated, with another equal amount, to those who have suffered the injury, in Roman law; and the authors of violence, in addition to the penalty of triple damages, are punished extra ordinem: for the one the interest of private persons requires, for the other the vigor of public discipline demands l. 9. ß 5. D. de pub. vect. For public violence, he is not liable who has gathered arms for the sake of navigation l. 1. D: ad. leg. Iu. de vi. publ. VIII If the master of the ship has not done something through fraud or fault, or has done something which he ought not to have done, and thus has caused damage to the merchandise, therefore M 2
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268 Ioh. Loccenii inde dominis mercium tenetur, ut sup. ex occasione suis locis probavi li.2.c.1.ß.9.lib. 2.c.5.ß.10.12.c.6.ß.9.c.8ß.6.10,13.14.16 l.3.c.5.ß.7.14. Sed & si naufragio sua culpa caussam dederit, quomodo teneatur, vid. sup. lib. 1.cap.7.ß.3.5. IX. Si merces alio transvehendæ à prædonibus direptæ sint in ordinaria via, & nauclero nihil de illis ante constiterit, actione nulla tenebitur: cum hic sit casus merè fortuitus. Si verò in locum pitatis infestum navim applicuerit, vectoribus ei loci vitium testato denuntiantibus, & direptio subsequta fuerit, spoliatis damni accepti nomine tenebitur.c.4.leg.naut.Rhod. Si nauclerus vel exercitor propter privatum commodu[m] alios deprædetur & ab illis iterum spoliatus sit, unde mercatores damnum patiantur, aut à piratis captus eis resistere potuisset, & non restiterit: aut piraticam navem, quam sciebat esse talem, è vadis liberaverit, si postea à piratis cum navi captus, navi mercibusque exutus ac privatus fuerit, tanquam qui caussam damni dedit, inde tenetur arg. l.30.ß.3.D. ad leg. Aquil.l.4.ß.14. D. vi. bon. rapt. Straccha part. 3. de naut.n.2 5. seqq. X. Si magister navis falsis insignibus per se injussu domini utens merces per publicationem amiserit, ad damnum præstandum obligatus est. Id. n.23.24. XI. Navis
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268 Ioh. Loccenii hence he is held liable to the owners of the goods, as above I proved in the places cited on the occasion, lib. 2 c. 1 § 9, lib. 2 c. 5 §§ 10, 12, c. 6 § 9, c. 8 §§ 6, 10, 13, 14, 16, l. 3 c. 5 § 7, 14. But if by his own fault he gave rise to the shipwreck, in what way he is liable, see above lib. 1 cap. 7 §§ 3, 5. IX. If the goods to be carried elsewhere are plundered by pirates on the ordinary route, and nothing about them had previously been known to the shipmaster, he shall not be liable by any action, since this is a purely accidental case. But if he has brought the ship into a place infested with piracy, after the passengers of that place have duly warned him of the danger, and a plundering has followed, he shall be liable to the persons robbed for the damages suffered. c. 4 leg. naut. Rhod. If the shipmaster or carrier, for private advantage, plunders others and is in turn plundered by them, so that the merchants suffer loss, or if, having been captured by pirates, he could have resisted them and did not resist; or if he has freed from the shoals a pirate ship, knowing it to be such, and afterward, together with the ship, he was captured by pirates and stripped and deprived of the ship and goods, he is liable as one who gave rise to the loss, arg. l. 30 § 3 D. ad leg. Aquil. l. 4 § 14 D. vi. bon. rapt. Straccha part. 3 de naut. n. 25 seqq. X. If the master of the ship, using false insignia on his own authority and without the owner’s command, has lost the goods through confiscation, he is bound to make compensation for the damage. Id. n. 23, 24. XI. Ship
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 269 XI. Navis funibus invalidis ruptis, aut non bene alligata, aut non ita gubernata, ut debebat, aut absque ductore, vel sine perito ductore in mare immissa, si aliam navim incurrendo ei damnum dederit, vel eam depresserit, actio damni dati contra exercitorem competit, si navim minus idoneis hominibus commiserit l. 16. §. 1. D. de rei vindic. & sup. h. l. c. 7. §. 1 1. Si verò exercitor sit extra culpam, adversus magistrum navis datur actio, vel quod non idoneos ministros elegerit, vel incuria ipse quid admiserit, unde damnum datum est. sup. l. 1. c. 7. §. 3. & inf. h. c. §. 20. & c. 9. jur. Sue. de jur. naut. l. 29. §. 2. 4. D. ad leg. Aquil. l. 1 3. §. 2. D. loc. cond. quia est damnum culpa datum. Culpa auté est, quod, quum à diligente provideri potuit, non est provisum l. 3 1. D. ad leg Aqu. A magistro navis autem præcipua diligentia & inspectio requiritur. sup. l. 2. c. 1. §. 9. Mithridates rex Pontinavarchum, qui Chia navi regis navem prætoriam incurrerat læseratq; capitis poena affecit. quamvis navarchus vim tempestatis obtenderet, tamen illum hoc potuisse vel debuisse præcavere, si prudentius rexisset navem, eumque per insidias hoc fecisse rex existimavit; uti refert Appianus in Mithridatis. Si vero noctu aut coelo turbido per tempestatem tanta vis navi facta sit, quæ temperari non potuerit, M 3 (quod
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 269 XI. If a ship, after its weak ropes have broken, or being not properly fastened, or not so navigated as it ought to have been, or sent out to sea without a helmsman, or without a skilled helmsman, should run into another ship and thereby cause it damage, or sink it, an action for damage done lies against the owner, if he has entrusted the ship to less suitable men l. 16. §. 1. D. de rei vindic. & sup. h. l. c. 7. §. 1 1. But if the owner is without fault, an action lies against the master of the ship, either because he chose unfit servants, or because through his own negligence he allowed something to be done, whereby the damage was caused. sup. l. 1. c. 7. §. 3. & inf. h. c. §. 20. & c. 9. jur. Sue. de jur. naut. l. 29. §. 2. 4. D. ad leg. Aquil. l. 1 3. §. 2. D. loc. cond. because it is damage caused by fault. For culpa is that which, although it could have been foreseen by a diligent person, was not foreseen l. 3 1. D. ad leg Aqu. But from the master of a ship the greatest diligence and supervision are required. sup. l. 2. c. 1. §. 9. King Mithridates of Pontus punished with death the helmsman who had struck and damaged the king’s admiralship with a Chian ship, although the helmsman pleaded the force of the storm; nevertheless the king thought that he could and should have prevented this, if he had navigated the ship more prudently, and believed that he had done this through treachery; as Appian relates in the Mithridatica. But if by night, or in a stormy sky, such force has been done to the ship by a tempest that it could not be controlled, M 3 (quod
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270 Ioh. Loccenii. (quod testibus aut juramento adseret) nulla in magistrum aut dominum navis danda est actio l.29.ß.4. ad leg. Aqu. in fin. c.14. de jur. nau. LL. Sue. l.4. lur. Pruss. tit. 19. art. 4. ß.2. est enim hoc invitum per violentiam cujus principium est extra patientem. Aliquando etiam dominus vel magister navis potest carere culpa, non vero nautæ, aut gubernator navis, aut ductor, & tunc actio damni dati contra eos instituitur. d. l.29.ß. 2. & 4. ad leg. Aqu. c.14. jur. naut. LL. Suet. Alias Legibus maritimis V Visbyens. art. 27.50.70. & multoru[m] populorum Statutis dimidium damni dati præstatur læsæ navi â lædente, si absq; culpa domini navis damnum acciderit; idq; jurato adseverare possit, alterum damni dimidium fert ipse læsus. damnu[m] autem tale dividi quoque solet ob culpæ probandæ difficultatem. Grot. de jur. bel. & pac. 2,17,21. Iure Sue. est pars tertia damni dati, si casu non culpa factum sit c.9. jur. naut. LL. Sue. ubi vide, quid porro ad hoc requiratur. Existimandum vero, legem Sueticam hic non latam culpam, sed levem quæ casum præcesserit, intelligere. Alias damnum merè fatale nemo præstare potest aut debet. Hoc innuunt verba d. c. [Christ]or andrem stada &c. quæ actum nocendi significant, licet haud lata culpa intervenientem. Si vero culpa domini navis damnum datum
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270 Ioh. Loccenii. (which he will prove by witnesses or by oath) no action is to be brought against the master or owner of the ship. l.29.ß.4. ad leg. Aqu. in fin. c.14. de jur. nau. LL. Sue. l.4. lur. Pruss. tit. 19. art. 4. ß.2. for this is something involuntary, by violence, the origin of which lies outside the sufferer. Sometimes also the owner or master of the ship may be without fault, but not the sailors, or the helmsman of the ship, or the pilot, & then an action for damage caused is brought against them. d. l.29.ß. 2. & 4. ad leg. Aqu. c.14. jur. naut. LL. Suet. Similarly, by the maritime laws of Visby V art. 27.50.70. & by the statutes of many peoples, one half of the damage caused is to be made good to the injured ship by the one who caused the harm, if, without fault of the ship’s owner, the damage has occurred; and if he can affirm this upon oath, the injured party himself bears the other half of the damage. Such damage is also usually divided because of the difficulty of proving fault. Grot. de jur. bel. & pac. 2,17,21. In Swedish law there is one third of the damage caused, if it was done by accident and not by fault, c.9. jur. naut. LL. Sue. where see what further is required for this. It is to be thought, however, that the Swedish law here does not mean gross fault, but slight fault which preceded the accident. Otherwise, no one can or ought to make good damage purely due to fate. This is indicated by the words of d. c. [Christ]or andrem stada &c. which signify an act of injuring, though a fault not extending to gross negligence intervened. But if the fault of the ship’s owner has caused damage caused
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 271 datum sit, idque læsus probare, & seipsum ab omni culpa purgare possit, eo casu dominus navis totum damnum solus sarcire tenetur. Vn. latè ad leg. Rhod. pag. 263. 264. XII. Si navis vi ventorum impulsa esset in funes anchorarum alterius, & nautæ funes præcidissent, si nullo alio modo navis, explicari posset, hoc necessitas excusabit. l. 29. ß. 3. D. ad leg. Aquil. si quis funem, quo reliqata erat navis, præciderit, de nave quæ periit, in factum agendum d. l ß 5. sed si servandæ navis causa præciderit funem scaphæ, excusatur. vid. Actor. cap. 27. v. 32. XIII. Si navis perforata sit, est damni dati actio l. 27. ß. 24. D. ad leg. Aquil. Sed si per insidias hoc factum sit, intenditur & auge- tur crimen, ejusque poena. XIV. Damnum quod nautæ inter se dederunt, ab ipsis præstandum est, non aliis. l. 2. D. naut. caup. st. Confer c. 4. 5. 6. 7. 9. 17. 18. de jure naut. Suedor. XV. Si quis vectorum jussu vel rogatu navarchi malum adscendat, & decidens læedatur, pro rata ex damno tenebitur navarchus. Si quis per se ex lascivia adscendens decidat, damnum, quod sua culpa sentit, sibi imputet. fl. 4. Manhilg. Vpll. l. 12. Cod. de accus. XVI. Ab injuriis in navi re & verbis abstinendum. Si quis tamen jure domini aut M 4 pote-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 271 if it is given, and the injured party can prove it, and can clear himself from all fault, then in that case the owner of the ship is bound alone to make good the whole damage. Vn. latè ad leg. Rhod. p. 263, 264. XII. If a ship, driven by the force of the winds, should be into the cables of another’s anchor, and the sailors should cut the cables, if in no other way the ship could be freed, necessity will excuse this. l. 29. §. 3. D. ad leg. Aquil. If anyone cuts the rope by which the ship was held back, an action in factum is to be brought concerning the ship which was lost. d. l. § 5. But if, for the sake of saving the ship, he cuts the rope of the boat, he is excused. vid. Act. cap. 27. v. 32. XIII. If a ship is perforated, there is an action for damage caused, l. 27. §. 24. D. ad leg. Aquil. But if this is done by trickery, the crime and its punishment are made greater and more serious. XIV. The damage which sailors have caused among themselves must be made good by themselves, not by others. l. 2. D. naut. caup. st. Confer c. 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 17, 18. de jure naut. Suedor. XV. If, at the order or request of the master of the ship, one of the passengers climbs the mast and, falling, is injured, the master of the ship shall be liable in proportion to the damage. If anyone, of his own accord and in wantonness, climbs up and falls, let him attribute to himself the damage which he suffers through his own fault. fl. 4. Manhilg. Vpll. l. 12. Cod. de accus. XVI. Insults, both in deed and word, are to be avoided on a ship. If, however, by right of the owner or M 4 pote-
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potestatis corripiat servos aliosve in navi delinquentes, non pertinet ad injuriam, sed juris executio est l. 13. ß. 1. O ß. 6. l. 15. ß. 36. 38. D. de injur. XVII. Veteri consuetudine & peculiari quodam jure navium solent vectores & nautæ temerè jurantes, maledicentes, preces aut sacra negligentes, alealudentes graviusve delictum committentes aut mulctari aut pro ratione delicti ad malum suo more plecti, aut loris cædi. Non tamen immoderatè suo jure utentur, qui hoc usurpant in suos; l. un. C. de emend. serv. ne modum excedendo, Iudicum notioni subjiciantur magistri navis. XVIII. Stringentes cultrum aut gladium in alium, etsi non læserint eum, tamen quorundam statutis nauticis hanc poenam subeunt, ut culter per medium eorum manum transfixus inter digitos extrahatur: ut ita severitate poenæ à cæde & percussione absterreantur. vid. art. 24. Iur. naut. Caroli ix. Aliquando pro qualitate delicti sub carinam trahuntur, vel aliter plectuntur. XIX. Si nauta aut miles nauticus se opponat magistro aut præfecto navis, factionem & tumultum excitet, capitis poenam meretur. Sed de his fulius in articulis nauticis, vel militiæ naval. XX. Dominus navis tenetur ex quasi male-
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if he punishes servants or others on the ship who are in fault, this does not concern injury, but is the execution of authority; l. 13. §. 1. O §. 6. l. 15. §. 36. 38. D. de injur. XVII. By ancient custom and by a certain special right of ships, it is customary for passengers and sailors who swear rashly, curse, neglect prayers or sacred rites, gamble at dice, or commit a graver offense, either to be fined, or according to the nature of the offense to be punished in the usual manner, or beaten with straps. Yet those who use this right over their own people do not do so immoderately; l. un. C. de emend. serv. lest, by exceeding moderation, the shipmasters be subjected to the scrutiny of judges. XVIII. Those who brandish a knife or sword against another, even if they have not wounded him, nevertheless under the naval statutes of some places undergo this punishment: a knife is thrust through the middle of their hand and drawn out between the fingers, so that by the severity of the penalty they may be deterred from killing and striking. see art. 24. Iur. naut. of Charles IX. Sometimes, according to the nature of the offense, they are dragged under the keel, or otherwise punished. XIX. If a sailor or naval soldier opposes the master or commander of the ship, and stirs up sedition and tumult, he deserves the death penalty. But concerning these matters, see more fully in the naval articles, or in naval military law. XX. The owner of the ship is liable ex quasi male-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 273 maleficio ministrorum, si non ejus, sed illo- rum sit maleficium. Aliquatenus enim cul- pæ reus est, quod non meliores conduxerit §.2. Inst. de obl. ex q. del. l.60. §.7. D. loc. cond. l.2 1. §.ult. de neg. gest. Si de nave quid deje- ctum sit, datur actio utilis in navi præpositum l.6. §.3. D. de his qui dejec. vel effud. XXI. Si gravi procella aborta plures mi- nistri nautici in navi laborantes tumultuari occursu forte unum ex suis everterint, ita ut præceps in mare decidet & submer- geretur, non potest quidem actio adversus omnes ut æquè reos institui, si non intelli- gatur à quo eversus sit. arg. l.45. §.3. D. ad leg. Æqui. Examinati tamen è Suorum nu- mero designabunt reum, si nonint; aut jura- mento se purgabunt à facti ignorantia. Si vero manifestetur author, tamen ex impe- tu & incautè, non ex proposito hoc fecisse præsumitur; nisi probari possit, se studio fecisse. judicum autem arbitrio poena deli- cti non ex proposito admissi decernetur. vid. quoque sup. l. 2. cap. 7. §.7. XXII. Seducens salso lumine navigan- tes piscator, & morti causam præbens, me- rito quoque capitis poena plectitur, ex sen- tentia Peckii & Vinnii ad fin. tit. de inc.r. n. Occidisse enim dicitur, qui mortis causam quolibet modo præbuit l.51. D. ad leg. Æq. l.15. D. ad leg. cora. de Sicar. M 5 XXIII. Si
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De Iure Maritimo, Book III. 273 by the wrongdoing of servants, if the wrongdoing be not his, but theirs. For he is in some measure guilty of fault, in that he has not hired better men. §.2. Inst. de obl. ex q. del. l.60. §.7. D. loc. cond. l.2 1. §.ult. de neg. gest. If anything has been thrown from a ship, an utile action is given against the master of the ship. l.6. §.3. D. de his qui dejec. vel effud. XXI. If, a violent storm having arisen, several seafaring servants working in the ship should in a tumultuous encounter accidentally throw down one of their number, so that he should fall headlong into the sea and be drowned, an action cannot indeed be brought against all as equally liable, if it is not understood by whom he was overthrown. arg. l.45. §.3. D. ad leg. Æqui. Yet, upon examination, those among themselves will designate the guilty person, if they do not deny it; or they will clear themselves by oath from ignorance of the fact. But if the author is made manifest, still he is presumed to have done this in haste and carelessly, not intentionally; unless it can be proved that he did it on purpose. The punishment for an offense not committed intentionally, however, shall be determined at the discretion of the judges. See also above, l. 2. cap. 7. §.7. XXII. A fisherman who leads navigators astray by a false light, and thereby gives cause of death, is deservedly also punished with the penalty of death, according to the opinion of Peccius and Vinnius ad fin. tit. de inc.r. n. Occidisse enim dicitur, qui mortis causam quolibet modo præbuit l.51. D. ad leg. Æq. l.15. D. ad leg. cora. de Sicar. M 5 XXIII. If
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274 Ioh. Loccenii XXIII. Si quis alium submerserit aut suffocarit in aquis, quia hoc dolo fecit, ultimu[m] supplicium meretur l.7.ß.1.7. D. ad l. Aqu. vid. Carp Z.p.1. Pract. cr. q.3. n.28. seq. aut si naufragio causam proxima[m] mortis alicujus præbuerit d.l.1 5. de Sicar. sup.l.1. c.7.ß.12. XXIV. Si vulneratus mortiferè, postea naufragio maturius periit, de occiso agi non posse, sed de vulnerato contra vulnerantem, vult l.1 5.ß.1. D. ad leg. Aquil. quia naufragium non est passum apparere, an à vulnerante sit occisus, & vulnerans forte animum occidendi non habuit. & aliquando qui lethiferè videtur vulneratus, sanari & convalescere potest: quod medicorum judicio stabit. De aliis delictis pub. nihil attinet hic agere, sed alibi tradita satis est recognoscere, & huc paribus rationum momentis ad rem applicare. CAP.
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274 Ioh. Loccenii XXIII. If anyone has drowned another or suffocated him in water, because he did this with intent, he deserves the ultimate punishment. l.7. §.1.7. D. ad l. Aqu. see Carp Z.p.1. Pract. cr. q.3. n.28. seq. or if he has given the proximate cause of another’s death by shipwreck l.1 5. de Sicar. sup. l.1. c.7. §.12. XXIV. If one who has been mortally wounded afterwards perished earlier by shipwreck, it cannot be brought as a case of one killed, but against the assailant one may proceed for wounding, as l.1 5. §.1. D. ad leg. Aquil. holds, because in shipwreck it does not appear whether he was killed by the one who wounded him, and the assailant perhaps had no intent to kill. And sometimes one who seems to have been wounded mortally can be healed and recover; this will depend on the physicians’ judgment. It is not relevant here to deal with other public offenses, but rather to recognize what has been sufficiently set out elsewhere, and to apply here arguments of equal force. CAP.
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Delure Maritimo Lib. III. 275 CAP. I X. Num magister aut præfectus navis bona cum conscientia possit, igne in pulverem tormentarium injecto, navem una cum seipso & suis, & simul hostibus navem occupantibus, perdere potius, quam salvam navem, se & suos hostium arbitrio permittere? I. Occasio hujus quæstionis. II. Argumenta illorum, qui licitè fieri posse statuunt, quod est præsentis quæstionis. III. Et seqq. Hac contrariis rationibus diluuntur, & vera sententia firmatur. IV. De virginibus stupri suga se influmen projicientibus. I. CVm in fine superioris capitis de homicidio dictum sit, non in commodo de proposita quæstio quæ præter cætera de homicidio sui agit, illi statim subjici posse videtur, vel ideò excuti digna, ut eximatur M 6
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Maritime Law, Lib. III. 275 CHAP. IX. Whether a master or commander of a ship, with a good conscience, may, by throwing fire into the powder, destroy the ship together with himself and his own people, and at the same time with the enemies who have seized the ship, rather than, the ship being preserved, surrender himself and his men to the will of the enemies? I. The occasion of this question. II. The arguments of those who hold that it may be done lawfully, which is the subject of the present question. III. And following. These are dissolved by contrary reasons, and the true opinion is confirmed. IV. Concerning virgins who, fleeing from rape, throw themselves into a river. I. Since at the end of the preceding chapter something has been said about homicide, it seems not unsuitable for the proposed question, which among other things deals with self-homicide, to be placed immediately after it, or at least worthy of examination, so that it may be distinguished from the rest. M 6
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276 Ioh. Loccenii hic scrupulus dubiis conscientiis, & imprimis æterno animarum periculo, quantum potest, occurratur. II. Qui, quod in quæstione est, ut licitum defendunt, obducunt nobis authoritatem magistratus, desperationem victoriæ & publici boni finem. Chytræus in libro de morte & vita æterna: Minus, inquit, temerè pronunciandum est de iis, qui juramento magistratui superiori obligati arces aut naves bellicas defendendas cum hoc mandato susceperunt, ut spe nulla defensionis & incolumitatis superstite, una cum munitionibus aut navibus fidei suæ creditis mori & deleri malint, quam contra fidem magistratui suo datam eas incolumes hostium potestati dedere. Quamvis hic Chytræus non expressè dicat, eos, quibus arces & naves commissæ sunt, posse ob dictam causam sibi manus inferre, tamen hoc inde colligas. Aut si ita sentit, quod præstet mori & deleri nostros unà cum navibus (per hostem, non per seipsos) quam contra fidem magistratui datam se navesque incolumes hosti dedere, nostræ sententiæ non refragatur. Expressius Burgersdicius Ideæ Philos. mor. c. 14. ß. 17. Inter , ait, damnandi non videntur nautæ, qui igne in pulverem tormentarium conjecto, seipsos simul cum hostibus occidunt, si publica autoritate muniti sint, nullaque appareat spes victoriæ, &
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276 Ioh. Loccenii this scruple, as much as possible, should be met in the case of doubtful consciences, and especially of the eternal peril of souls. II. Those who defend as lawful what is in question here, oppose to us the authority of the magistrate, the hopelessness of victory, and the end of the common good. Chytræus, in the book De morte & vita æterna : “Less,” he says, “must be rashly pronounced concerning those who, bound by oath to a superior magistrate, have undertaken to defend fortresses or warships with this charge, that, no hope of defense and safety remaining, they would rather die and perish together with the fortifications or ships entrusted to their fidelity than, contrary to the faith given to their magistrate, surrender them unharmed to the enemy’s power. Although here Chytræus does not expressly say that those to whom fortresses and ships are entrusted can, for the said reason, lay hands on themselves, still you may infer this from it. Or if he thinks that it is preferable that our men should die and perish together with the ships (by the enemy, not by themselves) rather than, contrary to the faith given to the magistrate, hand over themselves and the ships unharmed to the enemy, it does not oppose our opinion.” More explicitly Burgersdicius, Ideæ Philos. mor. c. 14. § 17: “Among,” he says, “the condemned do not seem to be sailors who, after a fire has been thrown into the gunpowder, kill themselves together with the enemy, if they are equipped with public authority, and no hope of victory appears, and
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 277 & patriæ, cui militant, bonum potius spectent, quod in ruina hostium consistit, quam malum quod in hostium potestatem venientibus per- ferendum foret. III. Verum quidem est magistratui non solum propter iram sed etiam propter conscientiam obediendum esse Rom. 13,5. Et quamvis dura subditis ejus jussa videantur, tam[m]e illorum est isthæc exsequi, non interpretari. Eoru[m] culpa nulla est, qui parere necesse habent l.157.l.167.§.1.l.169.l.199 D de reg.jur.vid. & V asq. Illust. quæ.c.8.n.9. In Legibus V Visigothoru[m] l.8.t.1.c.1. dicitur: qui dominorum jussionibus obedientiam detulerunt, culpabiles haberi non potuerunt: quia non suo excessu, sed majoris imperio id commisisse probantur. Sed hæc procedunt, si justa sint magistratus imperia. unde Poëta ait: Et parere decet jussis, & justa jubentur. Si vero quid præcipiat, quod juri divino & naturæ repugnet, non magis obligantur subditi parere, quam magistratus hoc præcipere. Magistratui quidem parendum, sed magis Deo Act.4.v.19.Deus benefecit obstetricibus apud Hebræos, quod ipsum magis timerent, quam regem AEgypti Pharaohem, jubentem masculos infantes Israelitarum recens natos occidere Exo.1.v.20. 21. sed per se res illicita est, quippe quæ juri divino Gen.9.v.5.6. quinto De- calogi
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 277 and that they should rather regard the good of the country for which they serve, which consists in the ruin of enemies, than the evil that would have to be endured by those coming under the power of enemies. III. It is indeed true that obedience must be given to the magistrate, not only because of wrath but also because of conscience, Rom. 13, 5. And although his commands may seem harsh to his subjects, it is for them to carry them out, not to interpret them. No blame attaches to those who are bound to obey, l.157. l.167. §.1. l.169. l.199 D de reg. jur. vid. & V asq. Illust. quæ. c.8. n.9. In the Laws of the Visigoths, V. l.8. t.1. c.1. it is said: those who have shown obedience to the commands of their lords could not be held culpable, because it is proved that they committed it not of their own excess, but by the command of a superior. But these things apply if the magistrate’s commands are just. Whence the Poet says: And it is fitting to obey commands, when just things are commanded. But if he should order anything that is contrary to divine and natural law, subjects are no more bound to obey than the magistrate is bound to command this. Indeed one must obey the magistrate, but more God, Acts 4. v. 19. God favored the midwives among the Hebrews because they feared Him more than Pharaoh, king of Egypt, who commanded that the male infants newly born of the Israelites be killed, Exo. 1. v. 20, 21. but in itself the matter is unlawful, since it is contrary to the divine law, Gen. 9. v. 5, 6, and to the fifth commandment of the Decalogue
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278 Ioh. Loccenii calogi præcepto & naturæ E. h. 5. v. 29. contraria est. Vnde Burgersdicius d. c. 14. ß. 16. ait: si magistratus aliquem damnet ad , legi naturæ potius parendum est, quam magistratui id quod naturæ contrarium est præcipienti. Quamvis vero fidem suam & obedientiam videantur probare patriæ & magistratui, qui hoc modo pereunt; tamen non excusantur coram Dei tribunali: qui suo non alieno arbitrio, & ea via ac hora, qua ipsi placet, animas hominum vult re- poscere in quas ipsi soli jus est. Nemo potestatem habet in proprium spiritum pro lubitu dimittendum; nedum eam sibi su- mere potest in alienum. Guntus Magnus de quodam sui temporis præfecto navis, se & navem flammis tradente, ne in hostium manus veniret, dixi te fertur: Erga me & regnum masculè & fideliter, erga seipsum scel- ratè egit. IV. Sed quid si nulla spes victorix aut, defensionis supersit, metusque præsens hostilis captivitatis & forte crudelitatis adsit, nonne tunc præstat venienti malo hac via occurrere? quasi non malum majus esset sibi ipsi mortem consciscere; & non præstaret, hostili quam sua manu cadere. Aut si vita superstite immaniter tracteris ab hoste, tamen fortius hoc tolerabitur, quam si metu quorumcunque adversorum tibi ipsi manus inferas. Quon-
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278 Ioh. Loccenii is contrary to the commandment of the law and of nature, E. h. 5. v. 29. Hence Burgersdicius d. c. 14. §. 16. says: if a magistrate condemns someone to ..., one ought rather to obey the law of nature than the magistrate, when he commands something contrary to nature. Although indeed those who perish in this way seem to prove their fidelity and obedience to their fatherland and to the magistrate; yet they are not excused before the tribunal of God: for He wishes to reclaim the souls of men, not by another’s will, but by His own, and in that way and hour which pleases Him, to whom alone the right belongs. No one has the power over his own spirit to dismiss it at will; much less can he take that power for himself over another’s. It is said that Great Guntus, concerning a certain naval commander of his time, who handed himself and his ship over to the flames lest he should fall into the hands of the enemy, said: Toward me and the kingdom he acted manfully and faithfully; toward himself, wickedly. IV. But what if no hope of victory or defense remains, and there is present fear of hostile captivity and perhaps cruelty—would it not then be better to meet the coming evil in this way? as if it were not a greater evil to bring death upon oneself; and whether it would not be better to fall by the hand of the enemy than by one’s own hand. Or if, while life remains, you are treated savagely by the enemy, yet this will be borne more bravely than if, out of fear of any adversities whatsoever, you raise your hand against yourself. For...
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 279 Quondam hoc fuit Stoicorum & paga- norum, ludibrium hostis morte sui præve- nire. Sed qui Christiani sumus, scire fas est, eventum prælii Deo committendum, non voluntaria morte prævertendum esse: ne judicium Dei petulanter involemus: ne omnem Dei opem & liberationem despe- rare videamur: ne fugiendo temporalem contumeliam delictis nostris debitam, in æternam incidamus. Nonne vita etiam qualiscunque tolerabilior est tam ancipiti & periculosa morte? Conf. quoque Freins- hemium in Curtium 5, 9, 6. O Vinnium ad leg. Rhod. de jact. p. 230. V. Cæterum non directè hoc agi, ajunt, ut semetipsos occidant, aut ut effugiant malum ipsis perferendum, si in hostium potestatem veniant; sed patriæ bonum inprimis quari, quod in ruina hostium consistit. Eadem est sententia Amesi l. 5. de cal. e onsc. c. 31. 9. 14. quamvis cum aliqua restrictione posita. Licitum aliquando est, inquit, exponere se tali periculo mortis, ex quo certò sed indirectò mors est se- cutura. Sic miles potest consistere in statione, aut capessere jussum aliquod imperatoris, ex quo novit se ista ratione interimendum. Sic Samson (ex singulari instinctu) directe inten- debat Philistæos occidere, non semetipsum, quamvis præviderit suam mortem inde securu- ram lud. 16. 30. Similis fere est ratio eorum, qui
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 279 Once it was the custom of the Stoics and pagans to forestall the enemy’s mockery by death. But for us who are Christians, it is right to know that the outcome of battle must be committed to God, not anticipated by a voluntary death: lest we rashly invoke the judgment of God; lest we seem to despair of all God’s help and deliverance; lest, by fleeing the temporal disgrace due to our sins, we fall into an eternal one. Is not life, however it may be, more tolerable than so doubtful and perilous a death? Compare also Freinshemius on Curtius 5, 9, 6. And Vinnius on the Rhodian law concerning jettison, p. 230. V. Moreover, they say that the point is not directly this: that they should kill themselves, or escape the evil they must endure if they fall into the power of enemies; but rather that the good of the fatherland is sought first of all, which consists in the ruin of the enemies. The same opinion is that of Amesius, lib. 5. de cal. e onsc. c. 31. § 14, though with some restriction added. “It is sometimes lawful,” he says, “to expose oneself to such a danger of death, from which death will certainly, though indirectly, follow. Thus a soldier may stand on guard, or carry out some command of a commander, from which he knows that in this way he will be slain in the meantime. So Samson (from a singular instinct) directly intended to kill the Philistines, not himself, although he foresaw that his own death would follow from it” Judg. 16. 30. The reasoning of those who
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280 Ioh. Loccenii qui pulvere tormentario accendunt navem qua feruntur, ne perveniat in hostis possessionem. Non enim directè intendunt semetipsos occidere sed hosti incommodare. Sed omnibus his rationibus evertendis vel unicum Spir. S. dictum sufficiat: Non sunt facienda mala (sive directè sive obliq[ue] indefinite enim loquitur) ut eveniant bona Ro. 3. v. 8. Iam aute[m] certum est, quod aurexgia per se sit mala & illicita, ut sup. ß. 3. Probatum est, proinde nulla circumstantia potest eam facere licitam. August. 1. 1 de Civ. Dei c. 27. Si sponte se occidendi causa justa non est, ergo nulla est. Et Burgersdicius c. 19. Ideæ phil. mor. ß. 17. ait: Quod per se malum est, non potest ulla effe- cti ratione fieri bonum. Et Amelius d. 10. q. 2. Vita proximi non subjicitur arbitrio cujuspiam, nisi illius qui author est dominus vitæ. Hominum omnium est obedire legi de non occidendo, nulla adhibita exceptione, quæ ab authore legis non est approbata. Nec stringunt exempla militis in statione sua cum periculo mortis constituti, & Samsonis. Hoc est officii militis, ut servet suam stationem sibi ab imperatore assignatam, etiamsi sciat se interimendum, sed manu aliena non sua. Quin ut miles injussu imperatoris non excedet statione sua; ita nec homo vita, injussu Dei. Hieronymus in epistol. ad Paulum super obitullesillæ. t, 1. p. 159. sic introducit Chri-
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280 Ioh. Loccenii who ignite the ship with gunpowder on which they are carried, lest it come into the enemy’s possession. For they do not directly intend to kill themselves, but to inconvenience the enemy. But to overturn all these reasons, let even one saying of the Holy Spir- it suffice: “Evil things are not to be done (whether directly or indirectly, for he speaks indefinitely) that good may come” Rom. 3:8. Now however it is certain that aurexgia is in itself evil and unlawful, as above § 3 it has been proved; therefore no circumstance can make it lawful. August. l. 1 de Civ. Dei c. 27. “If there is no just cause for voluntarily killing oneself, then there is none.” And Burgersdicius c. 19. Ideæ phil. mor. § 17. says: “What is evil in itself cannot by any efficient cause be made good.” And Amelius d. 10. q. 2. “The life of one’s neighbor is not subject to the judgment of anyone except of him who, as author, is lord of life. It belongs to all men to obey the law against killing, with no exception added, which has not been approved by the author of the law.” Nor do the examples of a soldier in his post, placed in danger of death, and of Samson, bear weight. This is the soldier’s duty, to keep the post assigned to him by the emperor, even if he knows that he is to be killed, but by another hand, not his own. Indeed, just as a soldier will not leave his post without the emperor’s order; so neither will a man leave life, without God’s order. Jerome in the epistle to Paulinus on the death of one of those women, vol. 1, p. 159, thus introduces Chri-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 281 Christum loquentem: Nullam animan recipio, quæ me nolente separatur à corpore. Nul- lus enim homicida (sive sui sive alterius) ha- bet vita æternam in se manentem 1. Ioh. 3. v. 15. 1. Cor. 3. v. 17. Samsonis autem exe- plu[m] est singulare & extraordinarium, quod regulam dare nequit, sed solum Dei ver- bum. Ideò quoque Amelius ait: Samsonem hoc ex singulari instinctu fecisse. Et ante ip- sum August. 1. 1. de C.D. c. 21. Nec Samson aliter excusatur, quod seipsum cum hostibus ruina domus oppressit, nisi quia Spiritus laten- ter hoc jusserat, qui per illum miracula facie- bat. Talem instinctum nautas aut milites in navi dicto modo se è medio tollentes ha- bere, non possumus adfirmare. Morte au- tem Simsonis Deum idololatricam Dago- nis domum subvertere, & superstitionem Pelischtæorum punire voluisse, Theologi notant. Itaque non ferè similis, sed plane dissimilis est ratio eorum qui pulvere tor- mentario accendunt navem: quia Samson hoc fecit instinctu divino, nautæ hoc faci- unt jussu humano. alium finem Samson spectavit, alium nautæ. In eo tamen, dicas, videntur utrinque convenire, quod non di- recte intendunt semetipsos occidere, sed hosti incommodare. Largiri possem, si finis utrique simplex esset. Sed Samsoni scopus erat pro- positus præter ultionem hostium, etiam a- bolitio
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On Maritime Law, Book III, 281 Christ speaking: I do not receive any soul which is separated from the body against my will. For no murderer (whether of himself or of another) has eternal life abiding in him: 1 John 3, v. 15; 1 Cor. 3, v. 17. But the example of Samson is singular and extraordinary, which cannot establish a rule, but only the word of God. Therefore Amelius also says: that Samson did this from a singular impulse. And before him Augustine, Book 1, de Civitate Dei , ch. 21: Nor is Samson otherwise excused, that he overwhelmed himself together with the enemies by the ruin of the house, except because the Spirit had secretly commanded this, who was working miracles through him. We cannot affirm that sailors or soldiers have such an impulse, when in the manner just mentioned they take themselves out of the midst of life. By the death of Samson, however, the theologians note that God wished to overthrow the idolatrous house of Dagon and punish the superstition of the Philistines. Therefore the reason of those who set a ship on fire with gunpowder is not merely similar, but plainly dissimilar: because Samson did this by divine impulse, the sailors do it by human command. Samson had one end in view, the sailors another. Yet in this you might say they seem to agree on both sides, that they do not directly intend to kill themselves, but to harm the enemy. I could grant that, if the end were simple for both. But Samson’s intended aim was, beyond the vengeance on the enemies, also the abolition
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282 Ioh. Loccenii bolitio superstitiosi cultus & propagatio gloriæ Dei, militibus nauticis scopus est unicus bonum temporale, ruina hostium. Quid autem lucraberis, si pro mundanis & temporalibus bonis, animæ periculum facias? Matt. 26. v. 16. Meum non est damnare quenquam, quem vox ipsius Dei damnat, is judicium suum habet, Nec meum est disputare decreta superiorum, sed quid justum sit probare tuerique, nec unquam animus fuit obtractandi, sed solius veritatis amore & conscientiarum tranquillitati consulendi studio hæc simpliciter proferre, & candidorum censuræ submittere. Non autem mea solum hæc sententia est, sed orthodoxorum Theologorum, præcipue Bartholomæi Batti, qui hoc argumentum ex professo tractavit in Consiliis Theolog. Dedekenni vol. 2. Inspiciatur quoque Dunth. de Casib. consc. pag. 368. & alii. VI. Quid vero judicandum sit de earum fæminarum morte, quæ, ut hostes & insectatores pudicitiæ suæ devitent, in flumen se projiciunt, inspice Augusti. 1. 1. de Civ. Dei c. 26. ubi statuit, non temerè de illis judicandum esse: si fecerint hoc forte divinitus jussæ. Videndum tamen monet, utrum divina jussio nullo nutet incerto: occultorum enim judicium non usurpandum. Tandem ita concludit: Hoc dicimus, hoc asserimus, hoc modis omni-
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282 Ioh. Loccenii Abolition of superstitious worship and propagation of the glory of God; for soldiers and sailors the sole aim is temporal good, the ruin of enemies. But what will you gain, if for worldly and temporal goods you bring danger upon your soul? Matt. 26. v. 16. It is not mine to condemn anyone whom the voice of God Himself condemns; he has his own judgment. Nor is it mine to dispute the decrees of superiors, but to prove and defend what is just, and never was my mind set on slander, but only on the love of truth and on consulting for the tranquility of consciences, to set forth these things simply, and submit them to the judgment of the candid. But this is not only my opinion, but that of orthodox theologians, especially Bartholomaeus Batti, who treated this subject ex professo in Consiliis Theolog. Dedekenni vol. 2. See also Dunth. de Casib. consc. p. 368. and others. VI. But what is to be judged concerning the death of those women who, in order to avoid enemies and persecutors of their chastity, throw themselves into a river, see August. 1. 1. de Civ. Dei c. 26, where he states that they are not to be judged rashly: if they did this by some divine command. Yet he warns that it must be considered whether the divine command gives no uncertain hint: for judgment of hidden things must not be assumed. At length he concludes thus: This we say, this we affirm, this in every way-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 283 omnibus approbamus, neminem spontaneam mortem sibi inferre debere, velut fugiendo molestias temporales, ne incidat in perpetuas. CAP. X. De Foro & processu juris navigantium. I. Forum competens navigantium. Census navis vel bonorum in navi respectu habitationis aut jurisdictionis. II. Expeditus processus. III. Iudicium in mari vel navi. IV. Causse fonticæ absentiæ. V. Probationes. VI. Quinam possint esse testes, & quomodo examinandi; præsertim in causa naufragii. VII. Famam etiam hic probare. VIII. Non differendam diu esse executionem. quæ ejus rei utilitas sit. I. Ultimum erit pauca notasse de foro & processu juris, per quem tanquam extremum refugium & legitimum juris subsidium personis rebusque nauticis laborantibus succurritur. Præterquam quod navigantes si domum redeant, legiti- mum
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 283 we all approve that no one ought to inflict voluntary death upon himself, as if by fleeing temporal troubles he should not fall into eternal ones. CAP. X. Of the forum and procedure of the law of navigators. I. Competent forum of navigators. The census of the ship or of goods in the ship, with respect to habitation or jurisdiction. II. Expedited process. III. Trial at sea or in a ship. IV. Causes of absences. V. Proofs. VI. Who may be witnesses, and how they are to be examined; especially in a case of shipwreck. VII. To prove reputation here also. VIII. That execution ought not to be long delayed. What utility there is in this matter. I. The last thing will be to note briefly the forum and procedure of the law, by which, as a final refuge and lawful aid of the law, relief is afforded to persons and things maritime that are in distress. Besides the fact that if navigators return home, the lawful
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284 Ioh. Loccenii mum forum in patria aut loco habitationis agnoscunt; unde & censum annuum respe- ctu navis, si nihil aliud proprium posside- ant in loco habitationis vel jurisdictionis pendere tenentur: aut ratione bonorum in navi c.20. ß.6.7. de jur. Reg. L.L. Sue. munic. sed in itinere versante ad forum ejus qui jurisdictionem in mari habet, si duo inde absint, vocari possunt, ut sup. lib. 1. c.4. ß.6. fusius ostensum est; attamen in quocunque foro constiterint, & tabernam vel officinam conductam habuerint mercesque distraxerint, conveniri tanquam temporarii subditi possunt. Ita si Hollandus Holmiæ servum institorem vendendarum mercium gratia habeat, quod cum eo servo contractum est, ita habendum, atque si cum domino contractum sit quare ibi se debebit defendere. l.19. ß.3. D. de judic. Non verò ubi sic veniunt peregrini, ut confestim discedant, aut duntaxat præternavigent. Durissimum enim est solum præternavigantes, quotquot locis conveniri d.1.19. ß.2. D. de jud. nisi ex culpa sua detineantur alicubi & conveniantur etiam præternavigantes. II. Vbicunque litis causa conveniuntur, non diu detinendi sunt, nec longum litis sufflamen permittendum, sed quam brevi potest temporis spatio, causa maturanda ob navigandi necessitatem, cujus pericu- lum
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284 Ioh. Loccenii recognize as the forum of their fatherland or place of residence; hence, with regard to the annual census, they are bound to pay according to the ship, if they possess nothing else of their own in the place of residence or jurisdiction: or on account of goods in the ship, c.20. §6.7. de jur. Reg. L.L. Sue. munic. but when travelling, they are subject to the forum of him who has jurisdiction at sea, if they are absent there for two days; they may be summoned there, as has been shown more fully above, lib. 1. c.4. §6. However, in whatever forum they may have taken up residence, and if they have had a rented shop or workshop and sold merchandise, they may be proceeded against as temporary subjects. Thus, if a Hollander in Stockholm has a servant as an agent for the sale of goods, what is contracted with that servant is to be regarded as if it had been contracted with the master himself; therefore he must defend himself there. l.19. §3. D. de judic. But not where foreigners come in such a way that they depart immediately, or merely pass by on a voyage. For it is most harsh that those merely passing by sea should be liable to be sued in as many places as there are places they touch, d.1.19. §2. D. de jud., unless, through their own fault, they are detained somewhere and are sued even while passing by. II. Wherever they are summoned in connection with litigation, they are not to be detained for long, nor is a long delay in the lawsuit to be allowed, but the matter should be brought to a decision as quickly as possible because of the necessity of sailing, the danger of which
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 285 lum est in mora. Cæsar l. 1. bel. Gal. Res maritimæ celerem & instabilem motum habent. In liquidis debitis nauticis summariè & ex- secutive (ut loquuntur) procedendum esse, innuit jus Sueticum c. 16. ß 1. de proc. curia. Idem volunt D[omi]n[us] vid. Mev. in Iur. Lub. l. 3. t. 7. a. 7. n. 1. seqq. Caussæ quoque de sub- mersis navibus aut naufragiis levato velo sunt cognoscendæ l. 5. C. de naufr. i. e. aperto ostio, cui velum solebat prætendi, vel sum- matim, breviter ac de plano, citra strepitum forensem. vid. Peck. & Vinn. in d. leg. pag. 402. In tribunali Admiralitatis Hollandiæ duplica litigantibus partibus non est per- missa, neque id absque gravi ratione: quum mare frequentantium ventisque commo- dis utentium intersit, controversias eorum quantum fieri potest celetrime expediri. Author Tractatus Ms. de statu Fed. Belg. c. 3. III. Quando vero in mari versantur, quia in navi, ubi focum & ignem habent, quasi domum suam secum circumvehunt, & unius societatis membra sunt, ex suis & principibus nautarum aut vectorum elige- re possunt arbitros in rebus litigiosis inter ipsos componendis, directore magistro na- vis, aut præfecto classis; cui etiam justitiæ patrocinium in mari committi non infre- quens est: ita ut non opus sit privata ultio- ne, ex mente Grotii de jur. bell. & pac. 2. 20. 8.
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 285 There is no delay. Cæsar, l. 1, bel. Gal. Maritime matters have a swift and unstable motion. In liquid maritime debts, proceedings are to be taken summarily and executively, as they say, the Swedish law indicates, c. 16, § 1, de proc. curia. The same is desired by the Lord, see Mev. in Iur. Lub. l. 3, t. 7, a. 7, n. 1 et seq. Cases also concerning sunken ships or shipwrecks are to be heard with the veil lifted, l. 5, C. de naufr., that is, with the door open, to which a curtain used to be hung, or summarily, briefly, and without formal courtroom noise. See Peck and Vinn. on the said law, p. 402. In the tribunal of the Admiralty of Holland, duplicate pleading by the litigating parties is not permitted, nor without serious reason: since it concerns the public interest of those who frequent the sea and make use of favorable winds that their disputes be settled as quickly as possible. Author of the manuscript tract on the condition of the United Provinces, ch. 3. III. But when they are at sea, since in the ship, where they have hearth and fire, they are, as it were, carrying their own home about with them, and are members of one society, they may choose arbitrators from among themselves and from the chiefs of the sailors or passengers to settle contentious matters between them, under the direction of the master of the ship, or the commander of the fleet; to whom also the protection of justice at sea is not infrequently entrusted: so that there is no need for private vengeance, according to the mind of Grotius, de jur. bell. & pac. 2. 20. 8.
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286 Ioh. Loccenii. 20, 8. si vero dissentiant, majoris partis arbitrio stabitur. l. 17. ß. 6. D. de receptis Et sic usu receptum est ut comites itineris, unius navis, ejusdem negociationis participes atque collegæ teneantur stare decreto partis majoris, in his duntaxat, quæ determinatione quædam indigent, & ad eam pertinent communitatem; cujus ipsi membra sunt. Grot. c. 4. de imper. summ potest. circa sacr. pag. 76. vid. quoque notata lib. 2. sup. c. 7. ß. 3. IV. Si quis in patria sit in judicium vocatus, succurritur ei, quando non solum morbo, sed etiam tempestate, quæ impedimento sit itineri, & navigatione impeditus, ad diem se judicio sistere nequit l. 2. ß. 6. 7. 8. D. si quis caut. l. 3 8. ß. 1. in fin. D. ex quib. caus. mai. hæ enim sunt causæ sorticæ. V. Sed si dicat, tempestatem impedimento fuisse, quo minus in judicium veniret, probare eum id oportet l. 19. ß. 1. D. de prob. Velut alias adfirmanti incumbit probario l. 2. D. eod. Vt si dicat nauta rem casu fortuito periisse, ejus erit hoc restibus probare l. 2. C. de naufrag. cap. 1. 2. LL. naval. Rhodio Si vero quis dicat, culpa nautæ casum evenisse, ille ipse qui hoc dicit probare debet Vn. ad Peck. in Tit. ff. Nav. c. st. pag. 34. Sed & qui excipit, probare debet, quod excipitur l. 9. D. de prob. VI. Communiter quidem domesticum testi-
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286 Ioh. Loccenii. 20, 8. But if they disagree, the decision of the majority shall prevail. l. 17. § 6. D. de receptis. And thus it has been received in practice that companions on a journey, of one ship, partners and fellow members in the same business, are bound to abide by the decree of the majority, in those matters only which require some determination and pertain to that community of which they themselves are members. Grot. c. 4. de imper. summ. potest. circa sacr. p. 76. see also the notes lib. 2. sup. c. 7. § 3. IV. If someone, being in his own country, is summoned to court, assistance is given to him when he is hindered not only by illness, but also by a storm which is an impediment to travel, and by navigation, and cannot present himself for trial on the appointed day. l. 2. § 6. 7. 8. D. si quis caut. l. 3 8. § 1. in fin. D. ex quib. caus. mai. for these are cases of force majeure. V. But if he says that a storm was the impediment which prevented him from coming to court, he must prove it. l. 19. § 1. D. de prob. As in other matters, the burden of proof lies on the one asserting. l. 2. D. eod. Thus if a sailor says that the property perished by accident, it will be his duty to prove this by evidence. l. 2. C. de naufrag. cap. 1. 2. LL. naval. Rhodio. But if someone says that through the sailor’s fault the accident occurred, that very person who says this must prove it. Vn. ad Peck. in Tit. ff. Nav. c. st. p. 34. But also he who raises an exception must prove what is excepted. l. 9. D. de prob. VI. Generally indeed domestic testi-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 287 testimonium non admittitur, verum cum per alios scientia gestorum in navi non facile haberi possit, quam per ipsos qui sunt in navi; vectores, aut si illi non adsint, nau- tæ probatæ fidei duo vel tres in caussa nau- cleri testimonium perhibere possunt, vel ad probandum ea quæ in navigesta sunt ad- mitti arg. l. 3. C. de nauf. c. 23, 27. jur mari- tim. V Visbyens. In Legibus nauticis eivi- tatum Hanseatic. art. 57. edit Germ. vel. 56. edit. Belg. hæc vetus coniuetudo maritima esse dicitur. Si vero universos violentia tempe- statis obruerit, nec alia probandi ratio su- persit, ne tamen veritas lateat, etiam libe- ri nautarum seu magistrorum intra judici- um examinari possunt in caussa naufragii de eorum interitu, quos navicularius nau- fragio periisse contendit d l. 3 Cod. de nauf. cum enim liberi parentibus navem paranti- bus communiter adesse soleant, notitiam eorum, qui navem ingressi sunt, facile habere præsumuntur. Peck. ad d. legem. Te- stes quoque in tempore producti summa- rie non citata parte ad examen produci posse, in tali adverso casu qui in remotio- ribus locis accidit, notant Pec. & V in. ad l. 2. C. de nauf. pag. 395. Atque ita judicatum refert Rota Gennuens. decis. 36. n. 12. & decis. 56. n. 2 Ibid. VII. Si vero non possit haberi in casu nau-
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De Iure Maritimo Lib. III. 287 testimony is not admitted; but when knowledge of what has happened on the ship can not easily be obtained through others than those who are on the ship, the passengers, or if they are not present, two or three shipmasters of proven reliability may give testimony in a case concerning the ship- owner, or, in order to prove those things which have been done on the voyage, may be admitted, arg. l. 3. C. de nauf. c. 23, 27. jur marit. V Visbyens. In the Maritime Laws of the Hanseatic cities art. 57. Germ. ed. or 56. Belg. ed. this is said to be an ancient maritime custom. But if violence of storm has overwhelmed them all, and no other means of proof remains, so that truth may not nevertheless lie hidden, even the children of sailors or masters within the jurisdiction may be examined in a case of shipwreck concerning the death of those whom the shipowner claims to have perished in the wreck, d l. 3 Cod. de nauf. for since children are wont commonly to be present with their parents while they are fitting out the ship, they are presumed easily to have knowledge of those who embarked on the ship. Peck. ad d. legem. Witnesses too, produced in time, may summarily be brought forward for examination without the other party being cited, in such an adverse case which happens in more remote places, note Pec. & V in. ad l. 2. C. de nauf. pag. 395. And thus Rota Gennuens. reports it to have been adjudged decis. 36. n. 12. & decis. 56. n. 2 Ibid. VII. But if in the case of ship-
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288 Ioh. Loccenii naufragii probatio de visu, sola fama sufficit & plenè probat, ut vult Gilhaus. Arb. Iudic. par. 10. c. 6. n. 7. vid. Or lib. 1. c. 7. ß. 12. quam tamen non vagam & incertam esse rationis est. VIII. Caussa rite cognita sine mora executioni mandanda est, præsertim si talis sit, quæ promtam habeat exsequendi copiam, quam non minus incolæ, quam advenæ desiderant amantque. Certè peregrini navigantes quo celerius in suis negotiis expediuntur, eò lubentius ad nos redeunt. Cætera quæ ad processum judicalem spectant, ex peculiaribus populorum statutis peri possunt. Hactenus ergo in argumento maritimo versati, nunc tandem terram videmus. SOLI DEO GLORIA. FINIS. LIBRI TECA NAZ. ROMA CHIO EMANUELE.
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288 Of Ioh. Loccenius proof of shipwreck by sight; mere rumor suffices and fully proves it, as Gilhaus. Arb. Iudic. par. 10. c. 6. n. 7. says; see Or lib. 1. c. 7. § 12. though reason requires that it should not be vague and uncertain. VIII. A cause, once duly understood, is to be handed over for execution without delay, especially if it is such as has ready means of carrying it out, which both inhabitants and strangers desire and love no less. Certainly, foreign sailors return to us all the more willingly the more quickly they are dispatched in their affairs. The remaining matters that concern judicial procedure can be found in the particular statutes of the peoples. Thus far, then, we have dealt with the maritime subject; now at last we see land. Soli Deo Gloria. End. Book Teca Naz. Rome Chio Emanuele.
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